Influence of a Prince on His Subjects

Where the example of a ruler permits certain actions, his subjects—whether soldiers or lawyers—often follow without hesitation. They believe that if a prince can act in a particular way, it must be lawful, and they imitate him freely, regardless of what the law actually says. This demonstrates how the behavior of leaders directly influences the moral and religious conduct of their people.

Rejection of Religious Precepts

You reject certain verses of the Alcoran, particularly the passage called “The Covering,” which is revealed for the sake of holiness. You deny the eighteen other verses that are meant to guide proper religious conduct. These rejections are serious errors in the eyes of orthodox law, as they undermine clear instructions for worship and morality Daily Ephesus Tours.

Improper Personal Practices

Even in daily habits, your practices are contrary to the law. At ablution, you do not wash the feet properly, only lightly brushing over them, instead of performing the full washing as prescribed. Your mustaches remain uncut, while the beard—considered the honorable ornament of a man’s face—is trimmed or shaped however you please.

You misuse sacred symbols as well. The color green, which belongs to the banner of Mahomet and should be treated with respect, is used improperly on your shoes and clothing. This shows a lack of reverence for religious symbols and traditions.

Violations in Food and Drink

You also violate religious rules regarding food and drink. Wine, which is forbidden to true followers of the law, is consumed freely. There is no distinction between what is clean and unclean; all foods are eaten indiscriminately. Such behavior demonstrates both moral and ritual negligence.

In short, there are at least seventy points where your actions and beliefs are in error. They show corruption of conduct, irreverence to sacred symbols, and rejection of key religious laws. A full account of these mistakes could f

Condemnation of Persian Heresy

If a Christian is condemned for claiming the Trinity in God, why should the Persian expect better treatment? Persians are accused of heresy in seventy different passages of the Alcoran. One of the most serious errors among their beliefs is their practice of attending the mosque without participating in prayer.

Mahomet himself said that anyone who goes to the congregation without intending to pray is a hypocrite. Such a person is cursed by God, will not be blessed in his house or property, and the angels will abandon him. Devils will accompany him, and he will not prosper in this life or the next.

Failure to Follow Religious Leadership

In response, the Persians claim that the ancient order of priests is extinct. They say they have no pious leaders to teach or guide them in public prayer. Yet, the Mufti challenges this claim. He asks why they do not follow the example of living, holy persons from the race of Mahomet. He points out that their excuse is invalid, as it comes from hostility toward the Mahometan family. They avoid using Imams or priests because they cannot match the perceived innocence of children Daily Ephesus Tours.

While it is true that their Imams may be morally weak or impure in conduct, the Mufti stresses that this does not excuse disobedience to religious law or public prayer.

Immorality Among Persian Leaders

The Mufti criticizes the Persian king, who acts as their High Priest, for his immoral behavior. He frequents taverns and brothels, engaging in public misconduct. He also keeps concubines, openly taking young women away from their husbands. Such actions, according to the Mufti, corrupt the people and weaken their religious practice.

This combination of heretical doctrine and immoral behavior shows why the Persians are viewed as enemies of orthodox Islam. Their neglect of prayer, rejection of holy leadership, and open immorality make them guilty of serious offenses in the eyes of Mahometan law.

Condemnation of Heresy Among Persians

The Mufti of Constantinople issued a severe warning to the Persians regarding their religious practices. He stated that even if their only mistake were the rejection of Mahomet’s close followers—Omar, Ofman, and Ebbidecber—their crime would be so grave that it could not be atoned for by a thousand years of prayer or pilgrimage. In the eyes of God, they would be condemned to the bottomless abyss of Hell and forever deprived of celestial bliss. This judgment was reinforced by the teachings of the four great Imams: Imam Azem, Imam Schafiy, Imam Malicky, and Imam Hammi Walking Tours Ephesus.

The Mufti’s admonition was intended to urge Persians to correct their errors and to ensure that their scholars, including prominent figures such as Abbas, followed the true path of Islam. He emphasized that their deviation from orthodox beliefs was a serious matter, both morally and spiritually, and required immediate correction.

Kyzilbashi Heresy and Moral Corruption

The Persians were further criticized for embracing the heresy of the Kyzilbashi, which translates as “Red Heads.” This group had adopted practices that the Mufti considered deeply heretical. He compared them to the Durzi, a group living near Mount Lebanon, who were notorious for corruption in both doctrine and morals. The Mufti condemned the Kyzilbashi as not only heretical but also abominable in behavior.

He declared that, in the zeal of God, it would be lawful to kill and destroy them, as their tenets had been repeatedly refuted by authoritative scholars like Giafer Efendi. Giafer Efendi had labeled the Persians as pagans in seventy different parts of the Alcoran, demonstrating clearly the errors in their beliefs. The Mufti’s ruling emphasized that the rejection of orthodox teachings and the adoption of corrupt practices were not minor mistakes but dangerous deviations that threatened the purity of the faith.

Religious Authority and Enforcement

This strict stance illustrates the power of the Mufti and other religious authorities in enforcing orthodoxy. By issuing such strong condemnations, they maintained both spiritual and social control over Muslim communities. Heresy was not merely a personal mistake but a threat to the collective order, justifying severe measures to correct it.

Through these rulings, we see how religious law, morality, and governance were intertwined in the Ottoman Empire. The Mufti acted as a guardian of orthodoxy, protecting the faithful from doctrines considered false or dangerous. This demonstrates the importance of conformity to established beliefs and the serious consequences for deviation.

Superstitions and Magical Beliefs

In Persian culture, it was commonly believed that certain people possessed a strange power in their eyes that could bring harm or misfortune. This belief extended to marriage ceremonies, where the eyes of some guests were thought to have the ability to cause weakness, illness, or even prevent procreation. To protect the bride and groom, Persians would create small sugar statues of important figures, such as the three doctors of Mahometan law, and place them at the entrance of the bridal chamber. These statues were meant to absorb any harmful gaze or magic from the onlookers. After the ceremony, the statues were destroyed and dissolved to remove the malign influence.

This practice shows how deeply superstition and religious interpretation were intertwined in everyday life. The Persians used symbolic acts to guard against perceived spiritual dangers, reflecting their broader approach to religion and ritual Walking Tours Ephesus.

Religious Controversy Between Turks and Persians

The enmity between Turks and Persians was not limited to war or politics; it extended deeply into religion. Both sides accused each other of blasphemy, heresy, and corruption of divine law. One example comes from the Mufti of Constantinople, Efad Efendt, who wrote a formal sentence condemning the teachings of a Persian scholar, Sari Halife, who tutored the King of Persia.

This sentence, approved and licensed in Constantinople, clearly illustrates the religious hostility between the two nations. The Turks viewed Persian teachings as false and dangerous, while the Persians rejected the authority of the Turkish religious scholars. Both sides issued anathemas and curses against each other’s beliefs, reinforcing mutual hatred and distrust.

Religious Disputes as Evidence of Hatred

The Persian practice with statues and the formal condemnation by the Mufti are just small examples of the deep-seated religious conflict between the Turks and Persians. Their disputes went beyond doctrine, affecting culture, politics, and daily life. The hatred was so ingrained that it shaped policies, wars, and education for generations.

Through these examples, it becomes clear that religious superstition and formal legal condemnations were powerful tools used by both sides to assert authority, protect their communities, and denounce their rivals. These practices also reveal how fear, faith, and law were closely linked in the Ottoman and Persian worlds.

Religious Hatred Between Turks and Persians

The conflict between the Turks and Persians was not only political but also deeply religious. Ottoman rulers often presented their wars as a defense of God’s cause. For example, when Sultan Selim I waged war against Persia, he declared that the purpose of his campaign was to defend the honor of the Prophet and punish the blasphemies committed by the Persians. By framing the conflict as a religious duty, the Sultan gave his campaign both moral authority and popular support.

Turks’ View of the Persians

Among the Turks, the Persians were seen as entirely corrupt and apostate. They were considered to have strayed so far from true Islam that they were beyond hope of recovery. Because of this belief, Persians were not allowed to enter the elite schools of the Seraglio, which trained future leaders of the Ottoman Empire. In warfare, Turks showed no mercy to Persian prisoners, neither sparing their lives nor taking them as slaves. The hatred toward Persians was deeply ingrained, extending across generations Walking Tours Ephesus.

Persians’ View of the Turks

The Persians, in turn, did not hold goodwill toward the Turks. They deliberately distanced themselves from Turkish customs and doctrines. In their religious practice, they rejected the authority of the three great doctors of Mahometan law—Eibubecber, Ofman, and Omar—considering them false and without authority. This rejection extended even into social customs. For example, in Persian marriage ceremonies, they would create small images of these three doctors out of sugar and place them at the entrance of the bridal chamber. Guests would then symbolically strike or destroy the images, showing disrespect for the Turkish interpretation of Islamic law.

Religious Conflict and Cultural Division

This mutual hostility demonstrates how religion can reinforce political and cultural divisions. Both Turks and Persians believed in the same fundamental faith but developed entirely different interpretations and practices. Their opposing views of religious law, moral authority, and sacred customs created a lasting enmity that affected diplomacy, education, and social interaction between the two empires.

Religious doctrine, in this case, became a powerful tool to justify war, enforce cultural separation, and maintain loyalty among followers. The conflict between Turks and Persians shows that even within a single religion, interpretations and traditions can be so divergent that they generate deep and lasting divisions.

The Two Main Sects Turks and Persians

Among the followers of Mahomet, there are two major sects whose members are often hostile toward each other: the Turks and the Persians. This division has been intensified over time by differences in education, culture, and the interests of rulers. Each sect believes its understanding of religion is superior, and their rivalry has often led to tension and even warfare.

The Turks believe that Mahomet was the chief and ultimate Prophet. They follow his teachings and consider his interpretations of the law to be the most perfect and divinely inspired. In contrast, the Persians give special preference to Ali, Mahomet’s disciple and successor, believing that his inspirations were more frequent and that his understanding of divine law was deeper than Mahomet’s.

Accusations and Religious Disputes

The Turks often accuse the Persians of corrupting the Alcoran (Quran). They claim that the Persians have altered words, misplaced punctuation, and created passages that are ambiguous or open to doubtful interpretations. For example, some portions of the Quran that were brought to Constantinople after the conquest of Babylon were kept separate in the Seraglio and forbidden to be read, under penalty of a curse, because they were considered unreliable or altered Walking Tours Ephesus.

Because of these accusations, the Turks consider the Persians to be forsaken by God and even blasphemers of the Prophet. These religious disagreements were more than just academic; they had real political and military consequences. For instance, when Sultan Selim I launched a war against Persia, part of the motivation came from this deep-seated religious rivalry. The conflicts were fueled by the belief that the Persians were heretical and that it was the duty of the Ottoman rulers to assert the correct interpretation of Islam.

The Role of the Mufti of Constantinople

The Mufti of Constantinople often acted as a religious authority to resolve disputes between these sects. He would publicly point out the errors and misconceptions in Persian teachings, reinforcing the Turkish interpretation of Islam as orthodox and correct. By doing so, he helped maintain unity among Ottoman Muslims and discouraged the influence of foreign religious doctrines within the empire.

This rivalry between Turks and Persians shows how religious differences, combined with political power, can lead to long-standing enmity. It also illustrates the importance of religious authorities like the Mufti in interpreting and defending official doctrine against alternative interpretations.

Preaching and the Rise of a False Prophet

After gathering his followers, Bedredm instructed them thoroughly in the principles of his new religion. He sent them out as apostles to preach and teach the people that he was chosen by God to be the King of Justice and the commander of the entire world. According to his teachings, his doctrines were already divinely accepted and destined to be universal.

The people were captivated by these claims. Many traveled in great numbers to meet Bedredm, eager to follow his promises of justice and divine authority. His growing popularity convinced him that he was strong enough to challenge the established order and take the field as a military leader.

Raising an Army

From his desert refuge, Bedredm marched with banners displayed and a well-equipped army. His forces consisted of both devoted followers and ordinary people who were attracted by the promise of religious authority and liberty. They engaged in a bloody battle against the troops sent by Mahomet’s son, Murad, who were tasked with suppressing the rebellion.

Despite his initial successes, Bedredm’s forces were no match for the trained Ottoman soldiers. His followers, misled by his claims of divine sanction, were defeated. Bedredm himself was captured and brought to justice. His claims of being chosen by God and of having special revelations could not save him, and he was executed Walking Tours Ephesus.

Religion as a Justification for Power

This episode illustrates an important lesson: throughout history, the names of God, justice, and revelation have often been used as pretenses to gain power and influence. Not only Christians but also Muslims and nonbelievers have invoked divine authority to justify wars, rebellions, and political ambition. Leaders frequently appeal to religion to gather followers, legitimize their cause, and give moral weight to their actions.

The story of Bedredm demonstrates how religious claims can inspire devotion and loyalty, but also how dangerous it can be when faith is manipulated for political purposes. Ultimately, even the most persuasive religious pretensions cannot protect leaders from the consequences of rebellion when faced with established authority.

Belief in Predestination and Destiny

The Turks hold a strong belief that every person’s destiny is written on their forehead at birth. They call this Nassip or Tabir, meaning the “Book of Fate” in Heaven. According to this belief, no effort, advice, or wisdom can change what is already written. People are convinced that their life and death are predetermined, and nothing they do can alter it.

This belief in fixed destiny is deeply rooted in the minds of ordinary people and even soldiers. It often leads them to act with extreme courage, sometimes to the point of recklessness. Soldiers may throw themselves into battle without regard for their own safety, seeing their lives as insignificant and willing to risk them to achieve victory. In fact, this belief has often worked to the advantage of the Turks, guiding them in war and other critical decisions Private Tour Ephesus.

Fearlessness in the Face of Danger

This doctrine of predestination also affects how people respond to disease and death. According to the teachings of Muhammad, believers should not abandon their homes even when a plague or deadly infection strikes. The idea is that God has already determined the time and manner of each person’s death. Because of this belief, many Turks will care for the sick and even enter infected areas without fear, treating those afflicted by plague as normally as people treat those suffering from less dangerous illnesses such as gout or fever.

Even when they observe that Christians often escape the plague by fleeing to healthier areas, while others remain and die, their belief in predestination is so strong that they continue to follow the same practice. They consider avoidance of danger unnecessary because God’s will cannot be evaded.

Social and Military Implications

This faith in fate has wide-ranging effects. On the battlefield, it makes soldiers fearless and extremely determined. In daily life, it encourages courage and devotion in the face of epidemics and other hazards. While outsiders may see these actions as reckless or foolish, the Turks see them as obedience to God’s will.

Overall, the doctrine of destiny, or Nassip, shapes both the spiritual outlook and practical behavior of the Ottoman people. It explains their bravery, their acceptance of risk, and their reliance on divine will in both war and daily life, reinforcing a culture of courage and devotion deeply rooted in faith.

Endowments and Wealth of Turkish Mosques

In summary, the wealth and support of Turkish mosques come from a combination of donations, lands, rents, and charitable gifts. Royal mosques receive large endowments from sultans and royal families, while smaller mosques depend on private gifts, bequests, and income from lands or properties. These revenues are carefully managed to support religious scholars, students, and charitable activities such as feeding the poor, caring for travelers, and maintaining hospitals.

The system is designed so that mosques are not only centers of worship but also centers of learning, social support, and community life. By observing the management of royal mosques, it is possible to understand how other mosques and religious institutions in the empire operate.

The Doctrine of Predestination According to Turkish Scholars

Turkish religious scholars, or doctors of the law, hold a strict view of predestination. Their doctrine resembles, in some ways, the beliefs of certain Calvinist thinkers in Europe. They interpret passages of scripture to support the idea that God determines the fate of every individual. For example, they cite phrases such as “the Lord said to the Potter, ‘What are you making?’ I will harden the heart of Pharaoh” and “Jacob I have loved, but Esau I have hated.” These texts are used to argue that God’s will is decisive in all matters of life Private Tour Ephesus.

The Turks do not give the same final authority to the Old Testament. Instead, they believe that the Qur’an, being more recent, expresses the will of God more clearly and perfectly. For this reason, the teachings of the Qur’an replace the laws of the older scriptures in guiding their faith and practice.

Some scholars go further, claiming that God is the ultimate author of both good and evil. They argue that all events, whether fortunate or harmful, occur according to divine will. This strict view of predestination helps explain why they interpret historical events, including wars and victories, as signs of God’s favor. For example, they saw the outcomes of Sultan Bayezid’s conflicts with his brother Selim as evidence of divine will and guidance.

Conquests and Divine Approval

Turkish scholars also use the empire’s successes as a measure of divine approval. Victories in war, territorial expansion, and prosperity are seen as evidence that God supports their religion and rulers. By observing the outcomes of political and military events, they interpret God’s favor and guidance for both the sultan and the faith as a whole.

In this way, the doctrine of predestination reinforces both religious devotion and loyalty to the state. It connects divine will directly with worldly events, encouraging the belief that the empire’s prosperity reflects the correctness of their religion and the justice of their rulers. This view shaped both the spiritual and political understanding of the Ottoman elite, linking faith and governance in a single system of divine and temporal authority.

Royal Mosques and Their Attached Institutions

Royal mosques in the Ottoman Empire were much more than places of worship. They were centers of religion, education, charity, and public service, often forming entire complexes with multiple supporting institutions. These attachments helped serve both the spiritual and practical needs of the community.

Educational Facilities

Many royal mosques had colleges called rehmele for students of Islamic law. These colleges provided instruction in reading, writing, and the principles of the law and religion. The students, often young boys from the community, were trained to become future Imams, scholars, or teachers. By educating the youth, these mosques played a crucial role in preserving and spreading religious knowledge.

Charitable Services

Royal mosques were also centers of charity. Kitchens attached to the mosques prepared meals for the poor, while hospitals, known as Timarbanelar, offered medical care to those in need. Inns, called Hans, provided lodging for travelers and pilgrims. Public fountains supplied water to both locals and visitors, ensuring basic necessities were met. Workshops for artisans and streets of cottages provided housing and employment opportunities for the poor. All these services were funded by the mosque’s revenue and endowments Private Tour Ephesus.

Sources of Income

The mosque income came from multiple sources. The rector or president, called the Mutevelli, managed the daily funds. In addition to donations and endowments, lands, villages, forests, and mountains, called trakfi, were assigned to the mosque. These lands were rented out for money, crops, or other provisions. Newly conquered territories were often added to support modern mosques, ensuring a steady revenue stream. In some regions, rents were collected as tenths or tithes, which the Turks used as a convenient system rather than as a religious obligation.

Community Integration

Through these attached institutions, royal mosques became central to social, educational, and economic life. They supported students, the poor, travelers, and artisans, while maintaining spaces for worship. Their income ensured that the mosques remained functional and beautiful, and funds were saved for repairs or emergencies.

In summary, royal mosques were far more than religious buildings—they were comprehensive institutions that combined worship, learning, charity, and community support, reflecting the Ottoman commitment to integrating faith with public life.

The Study of the Royal Revenues

The detailed knowledge of the royal mosque revenues is not open to everyone. It is mainly studied and understood by those who are appointed to manage these religious foundations. The records are carefully kept, and only trained officials are allowed to examine the full accounts. These documents are said to be very long and detailed, containing lists of rents, gifts, and many other sources of income.

However, according to reliable reports from people who do not exaggerate, the yearly revenue of the great mosque of Santa Sophia is believed to amount to about one hundred thousand zechins. This is a very large sum of money. What is especially remarkable is that this income does not come from lands outside the city walls. Instead, it is collected entirely from properties, shops, houses, and other sources located within the city itself Private Tour Guide Ephesus.

The Sultan as a Tenant

One of the most surprising facts about this arrangement is that even the Sultan himself is considered a tenant of this religious foundation. The imperial palace, or Seraglio, stands on land that was once part of the grounds belonging to the great church of Santa Sophia during the time of the Christian emperors. These lands were formerly connected to the sanctuary and gardens dedicated to that sacred building.

After the conquest of the city, the Ottoman rulers respected the religious history of the site. Although the location was highly suitable for a palace because of its beautiful and strategic position, the land was not simply taken without acknowledgment. Instead, the Sultan agreed to pay a daily rent for the ground on which the palace stands.

The Symbolic Rent Payment

The daily rent paid by the Sultan amounts to one thousand and one aspers. The addition of the single extra asper is symbolic. It serves as a sign that one thousand aspers alone would not be considered sufficient payment for land that was once set apart for sacred use. The extra coin shows respect and recognition of the religious value of the property.

This payment also leaves open the possibility that future rulers, moved by greater devotion or generosity, might increase the amount. In this way, the arrangement reflects both political authority and religious sensitivity.

Respect for Sacred Foundations

This example shows how seriously religious endowments were regarded. Even after political and religious changes, the income and property connected to important holy places were preserved and even strengthened. The idea that sacred land should not be entirely separated from its religious purpose influenced the way it was managed.

By maintaining such payments and respecting old foundations, the rulers demonstrated that religion remained closely connected with government and public life. The system allowed the mosque to continue receiving strong financial support, while also showing honor toward the sacred history of the place.

The Royal Mosques of Constantinople

The royal mosques of Constantinople are among the most famous and magnificent religious buildings in the empire. Some of the most important ones include Santa Sophia, the mosque of Sultan Mahomet who conquered the city, the mosque of Sultan Bayezid, Sultan Selim, Sultan Suleiman, the mosque of Schezade (the son of Sultan Suleiman), and the mosque of Sultan Ahmed. In addition to these, there are also several grand mosques built by the Queen Mothers, one of which was recently founded and richly endowed by the mother of the present Sultan.

These mosques are not only places of worship but also symbols of power, faith, and royal generosity. Their size, beauty, and strong financial support show the devotion of their founders and the importance of religion in public life.

Wealth and Endowments of the Royal Foundations

It is difficult to describe the full amount of revenue belonging to these royal buildings, because their wealth is said to be very great. Their income is as noble and splendid as the rulers who founded them. These mosques receive support from lands, rents, charitable donations, and other endowments that were given for religious purposes Private Tour Guide Ephesus.

As an example, the mosque of Santa Sophia, originally built by Emperor Justinian and later restored by other rulers, was once the chief church of ancient Byzantium and the main church of the Greek Patriarch. After the city was conquered, it was preserved and continued as a sacred place of worship. Instead of destroying its wealth, the new rulers maintained, improved, and even increased its endowments. This shows that the institution remained highly valued as a religious foundation.

Records of Donations and Income

The revenues of such royal mosques come from many different sources. These include gifts of land, money given with interest, charitable foundations, and other forms of financial support. All these contributions are carefully recorded in official registers kept by the mosque authorities.

When some curious observers attempted to learn the exact details of these incomes, they were told that the records of donations and rents were extremely large and detailed. The keepers of the records explained that the accounts of all the royal endowments together were so extensive that they could fill an entire volume. This suggests that the wealth dedicated to religious institutions was vast and carefully organized.

Religious Importance and Public Perception

The great endowments given to these mosques also reflect the religious spirit of the society. Donors believed that supporting a mosque would bring honor to their name and spiritual reward after death. The continued maintenance and growth of these foundations demonstrate a strong commitment to religion and charity.

In addition, the careful protection of these revenues shows that religious property was considered sacred. The income was not meant for personal use but for maintaining worship, helping the poor, and preserving the dignity of the mosque. In this way, the royal mosques of Constantinople stood not only as architectural wonders but also as lasting centers of faith, charity, and public service.

Independence of the Emaums

In religious matters, the Mufti does not have direct control over the Emaums in their daily work. He does not manage the order or government of each parish. There is no strong hierarchy or church structure in which one Emaum rules over another. Each Emaum is independent in his own parish and leads his local congregation without interference from other religious leaders.

However, Emaums are still subject to the civil authorities in matters of law. In civil and criminal cases, they must answer to the chief magistrates of the state, just like other citizens. Their independence applies mainly to their religious duties, not to political or legal matters.

Because of the simple way Emaums are appointed, and because there is little difference between religious leaders and ordinary people, their system may appear similar to independent church movements in other countries. The clergy are not separated from the people by special holy orders or permanent ranks. Instead, they serve in their role for as long as they hold their office. Once removed, they return to ordinary life Ephesus Daily Tour .

Respect for Churchmen and Lawyers

Religious scholars and lawyers are highly respected in society. This respect is shown in the formal titles used when writing or speaking to them. Official letters often address them with great praise, using words that honor their wisdom, knowledge, and skill. They may be called the glory of judges and wise men, and their learning and eloquence are admired.

Such titles show how important religious and legal learning is in their culture. Those who understand the law and religion are considered valuable to the order and stability of the empire. Their wisdom is seen as something that should grow and increase for the good of all.

The Mufti’s Investiture Ceremony

When a new Mufti is chosen, there is only a simple ceremony for his appointment. He presents himself before the Sultan. The Sultan then honors him by placing on him a valuable robe or veil made of rich sable fur. This garment is very expensive and shows the high dignity of the office.

In addition to the robe, the Sultan gives the Mufti a gift of gold. The gold is placed in a handkerchief and personally given to him. The Sultan puts it into the fold of the Mufti’s garment as a sign of favor and trust. This act confirms his position and shows royal support.

The Mufti’s Salary and Income

The Mufti also receives a daily salary, which is paid in aspers. This regular payment provides him with a comfortable income. However, he does not have many other fixed sources of revenue.

One important privilege he holds is the power to appoint certain religious officials to positions in royal mosques. These positions, sometimes connected with stipends or benefits, can be given to others. It is said that the Mufti may sell or grant these offices in ways that benefit himself, and this practice is not always considered improper in that system.

In this way, the Mufti’s income comes partly from his salary and partly from his influence over religious appointments. His wealth and honor both depend greatly on the favor of the Sultan and the authority of his office.

Qualifications of the Emaums

The Emaums, or local parish priests, must meet certain basic requirements before they can serve in their office. First, they must be able to read clearly from the holy book, the Alcoran. They must also be known as men of good reputation and honest moral lives among their neighbors. Their character and behavior are very important, because they are expected to guide the religious life of the community.

Before becoming an Emaum, a person usually learns the proper way to perform religious duties, including the call to prayer. At the appointed times of prayer, he must be able to call the people together from the top of the mosque tower. During this call, he repeats the traditional words that praise God and declare faith, reminding the people that God is great and that Muhammad is His Prophet. This call invites the community to gather for worship and prepares them spiritually for prayer.

Appointment and Approval Process

When an Emaum dies or leaves his position, the people of the parish may recommend a new candidate. They present his name to the Prime Vizier and declare that the person is suitable, knowledgeable, and worthy of the office. Sometimes they may even suggest that he is more learned than the previous Emaum Ephesus Daily Tour.

To make sure the recommendation is true, the candidate is usually asked to read a portion of the Alcoran in the presence of the Vizier or another authority. This serves as a simple test of his learning and ability. If he reads well and shows proper knowledge, he is approved for the position. After this, he receives an official document, often called a mandate, which confirms his appointment. This process is direct and does not require many complex ceremonies.

Nature of the Office

The appointment of an Emaum involves very little formal ceremony. In their belief, no special spiritual character or permanent priestly status is given to him. He is not considered a different kind of person set apart by sacred rites, as in some other religious traditions. Instead, he is simply a member of the community who performs a religious duty.

If he is later removed from his position, he returns to being an ordinary member of society. His role is defined mainly by the office he holds, not by a lifelong religious order. Even his clothing is not very different from that of other people. The main distinction is that he often wears a larger turban, similar to that worn by scholars and lawyers, and keeps a serious and respectful appearance.

Duties in the Mosque and Community

The primary duty of the Emaum is to call the people to prayer and lead them in worship at the mosque at the proper hours. He also reads and repeats selected verses from the Alcoran, especially during the important Friday prayers. His voice and guidance help maintain order and devotion within the congregation.

Most Emaums do not regularly give sermons unless they are especially skilled or confident in teaching. Preaching is often left to professional religious speakers who are trained for that purpose. These preachers may spend much of their time in religious schools or convent-like institutions, where they study and prepare for teaching. In this way, the Emaum mainly focuses on leading prayer and maintaining daily religious practice, while more advanced instruction is given by specialized scholars.

The Office of the Judge of the Militia

The office that comes next after the Mufti is called the Kadelefchere, or the Judge of the Militia. This official is similar to a Judge Advocate and has the authority to decide many kinds of legal cases. His power is not limited only to military matters, but can also extend to other law disputes when needed.

In this system, the soldiers of the empire enjoy a special privilege. They have influence and authority over many other groups in society, yet they are mainly judged and governed by their own officers and legal authorities. This means that the military class is, in many ways, separate from the rest of the population in matters of law and discipline.

Before a man can become Mufti, he must usually pass through the office of Kadelefchere. He must perform well and earn approval in this important position before he can rise to the highest religious office. This shows that experience in law and judgment is considered necessary for greater responsibility.

The Rank of the Mollas

Below the Kadelefchere are the Mollas, who are also respected legal and religious officials. There are two main kinds of Mollas, distinguished by their rank and salary. One group receives three hundred aspers, and the other receives five hundred aspers. These titles help show their level of authority and responsibility Ephesus Daily Tour.

The Mollas of the lower rank usually act as chief judges in smaller provinces. Under their authority are local judges, known as Kadees, who serve in poorer or less important towns. The higher-ranking Mollas, however, have greater power. Their authority can extend over the whole region governed by a Beglerbeg, and they supervise judges in wealthy and famous cities.

Because of their experience and learning, some Mollas eventually rise to the office of Mufti. However, this promotion does not happen quickly. They must advance step by step, serving in several important judicial posts before reaching the highest level. For example, a judge might first serve in a major city such as Bursa, then in Adrianople, and finally in the capital, Constantinople. After holding such important positions, he may then be considered for the office of Kadelefchere and later for the office of Mufti.

The Role of the Kadees and Religious Law

The Kadees, who are the ordinary and lower-level judges, are also counted among the religious scholars. Even though they deal with civil disputes, their work is closely connected with religion. In the Ottoman understanding, civil law is believed to come from the teachings of their Prophet and the traditions of their faith.

Because of this belief, legal judgments are not seen as separate from religion. Instead, they are treated as part of the same moral and spiritual system that guides worship and daily life. The scholars who interpret the law, whether they are Muftis, Mollas, or Kadees, are all respected as religious figures. Their duty is not only to judge legal matters but also to protect justice according to religious principles.

For this reason, the legal system and the religious system are closely united. The judges are expected to show fairness, wisdom, and knowledge of both law and faith. In this way, the administration of justice is considered a sacred responsibility, and those who serve in these offices hold an important place in both government and religion.