Political and Administrative Organisation

The Constitution of the Bulgarian Principality

It is still too early to write a full constitutional history of modern Bulgaria, since the Principality was established only a few decades before the beginning of the 20th century. The modern history of Bulgaria truly began with the arrival of the first Bulgarian Prince in the late 19th century. Between the time of the medieval Bulgarian kingdoms and the creation of the Principality, there was a long break of several centuries under foreign rule. Because of this, there is no direct political or institutional link between the old kingdoms and the Bulgaria of modern times.

The Organic Statute, which regulates political life in the Principality, was created in a short period and not entirely by Bulgarians themselves. The Great Powers of Europe, when they recognized the independence of Bulgaria, also decided what form the new government should take. They laid down the essential principles of public law for the Principality. Thus, Bulgaria’s constitutional system was not only the result of its national struggle but also the outcome of international agreements Istanbul Tour Guides.

Ancient Bulgarian Kingdom

Very little is known about the detailed political organisation of the ancient Bulgarian state. In its earliest form, the government appears to have been aristocratic. The king was given absolute authority, but he was assisted by a council of six great noblemen, called boliars. From this title comes the word “boliarstvo,” meaning nobility.

The royal court included many pages, equerries, and lesser nobles who came from different regions of the kingdom. The noblemen and the clergy together shared political power, often leaving little influence to the common people.

Social Conditions in the Past

Another important feature of the old Bulgarian kingdom was the existence of serfdom. From the very beginning, peasants worked the land under the authority of nobles and landowners. This system gave great power to the aristocracy and the church, but limited the freedom of the majority of the population.

The study of Bulgaria’s political organisation shows a sharp contrast between the ancient kingdom and the modern Principality. While the old system was based on aristocracy, serfdom, and the influence of the church, the modern Bulgarian state began under a constitutional framework created with the help of foreign powers. Although young, this system laid the foundation for Bulgaria’s political development in the years to come.

Languages Spoken in Bulgaria

Variety of Languages

At the beginning of the 20th century, Bulgaria was not only a land of ethnic diversity but also of many different languages. The census records show that the majority of the people spoke Bulgarian, but many other languages were used in daily life. This reflected both the history of the Balkans and the presence of minority groups who had lived in the region for centuries.

For example, there were:

German speakers – about 5,000 people (2,339 men and 2,682 women).

French speakers – around 643 people.

Italian speakers – over 800 people.

Romanian speakers – more than 83,000 people.

Tzigan (Roma) speakers – about 95,000 people.

Albanian speakers – around 1,300 people.

Hungarian speakers – nearly 900 people.

English speakers – just over 100 people.

Arab and Persian speakers, and a small number of people using other non-Slavic languages.

This wide range of vernacular languages shows how connected Bulgaria was to neighboring states and to the wider world.

Religions in the Principality

Orthodox Majority

Religion also played a central role in Bulgarian society. The census showed that the great majority of the population were Eastern Orthodox Christians. Most of the people who spoke Bulgarian, Russian, Serbian, or Greek belonged to this confession Istanbul Tour Guides.

Catholics and Protestants

Alongside the Orthodox, there were smaller communities of Catholics and Protestants. Many of these were linked with foreign settlers, such as Germans, Hungarians, and Italians. For example, the census recorded more than 1,200 German Catholics and a significant number of German Protestants. French and Italian settlers also contributed to the Catholic minority.

Jews, Armenians, and Muslims

Bulgaria was also home to other religious groups.

The Jewish community spoke their own dialects and mainly lived in towns.

The Armenians had both Orthodox and Catholic members.

Muslims, including Turkish and Tatar speakers, formed another important group, especially in some regions of the country.

A Diverse but United Nation

The data shows that although Bulgarians formed the majority, the Principality had many small communities with their own languages and religions. Each group contributed to the culture, economy, and traditions of the land.

The Bulgarian state, still young at the start of the 20th century, had to find ways to integrate this diversity while strengthening national identity. The coexistence of different languages and confessions shaped Bulgaria into a country with both deep local traditions and strong links to the wider world.

Family Size in Bulgaria

Large and Patriarchal Families

One of the most interesting aspects of Bulgarian society in the early 20th century is the size of families. The table of family sizes shows how many members usually lived together. A remarkable feature is the large number of big families, sometimes made up of many generations. These groups often lived under the same roof and worked on land that was owned jointly. Such families were known as patriarchal groups, where one elder, usually the father or grandfather, was the head of the household.

In earlier times, these large families were more common. However, the law of succession, which divided land among heirs, slowly reduced the number of such groups. Over time, rural properties became split among children and grandchildren, which made families smaller and more independent.

Statistics on Family Size

The census records show that while small families of one to four members were common, there were also many households with six, seven, or even more members. For example, more than 110,000 families had five members, and over 105,000 families had six members. Some households even reached 15 to 20 members, though these were rare. This demonstrates how deeply family life was connected with agriculture, where many hands were needed to work the fields Istanbul Tour Guides.

Nationalities in Bulgaria

Bulgarian Majority and Minorities

The census also recorded the nationalities living in the Principality. Bulgarians formed the vast majority, with more than 3.9 million people. Alongside them lived smaller groups such as Turks (29,037), Greeks (7,257), Romanians (2,095), Italians (1,137), and others. Foreign nationals such as Russians, Austro-Hungarians, Germans, French, Swiss, and British were also present, though in small numbers.

This diversity shows that Bulgaria, even in its early years as a modern state, had a mix of communities, some of them merchants, diplomats, or craftsmen who had settled there.

Birthplaces of the Population

Another way to view the population is by birthplace. Most people, nearly 3.9 million, were born in Bulgaria. Others came from nearby countries such as Turkey (87,474), Romania (13,542), Russia (7,341), and Serbia (4,438). A smaller number were born in countries like Austria-Hungary, Greece, Italy, Germany, and France. This mixture reflects migration patterns and the ties Bulgaria had with neighboring lands.

Languages Spoken

Vernacular Languages

Language statistics also reveal the multicultural character of the country. The majority of people spoke Bulgarian (over 3.2 million). However, many spoke Turkish (497,820), Greek (69,761), Jewish dialects (36,455), Armenian (13,494), and Tatar (16,270). Smaller groups spoke Russian, Serbian, Croatian, Polish, Czech, and other Slavic languages.

These figures highlight the linguistic richness of Bulgaria, where different traditions and cultures coexisted within one state.

At the start of the 20th century, Bulgaria had a growing population characterized by strong family ties, a clear Bulgarian majority, and many small minority communities. Large households reflected the agricultural way of life, while the presence of different nationalities and languages showed that Bulgaria was part of a wider network of peoples in the Balkans and Europe.

Population Density in Bulgaria

Average Density

If we compare the total population of Bulgaria with the total land area of the Principality, we find that there are about 39 inhabitants per square kilometre. This number shows the average density of the population. Considering the rich soil, fertile land, and natural advantages of the country, Bulgaria could easily support a population much larger than the one it had at the beginning of the 20th century.

Urban and Rural Population

The majority of Bulgarians at this time lived in the countryside, working mainly in farming and agriculture. However, the number of towns was also relatively high, with 73 towns in total. The capital city, Sofia, stood out as the largest urban centre, with 82,621 inhabitants Istanbul Tour Guides.

Other important towns included:

Plovdiv (Philippopolis) – 45,707 inhabitants

Varna – 37,417 inhabitants

Rousse (Roustchouk) – 33,632 inhabitants

Sliven – 25,027 inhabitants

Shoumen – 22,275 inhabitants

Pleven – 21,145 inhabitants

Stara Zagora – 20,788 inhabitants

These towns were not only administrative and cultural centres but also played an important role in trade and economic life.

Medium-Sized Towns

The census also recorded several towns with populations between 10,000 and 20,000 people. Some of the larger ones were Tatar-Bazardjik (17,555), Vidin (16,388), Yambol (15,741), Dobrich (15,397), and Haskovo (15,105). Others such as Razgrad, Bourgas, Sistova, and Kazanlik also belonged to this group.

Smaller Towns

In addition, there were many towns with populations ranging from 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants. Examples include Toutrakan (9,845), Panagyurishte (9,729), Karlovo (7,812), Gabrovo (7,816), Gorna Oryahovitsa (6,819), Nova Zagora (5,879), and Nikopol (5,236). These smaller towns were still significant because they served as local centres for trade, crafts, and administration.

In summary, Bulgaria at the beginning of the 20th century had a growing and balanced population. While most people lived in rural areas, the number of towns and cities was already large compared to the size of the country. With its fertile lands and resources, Bulgaria was in a strong position to support even more people in the years ahead.

Population in Bulgaria

Regular Census of the Population

According to Bulgarian law, a census of the population is carried out at fixed times. This important responsibility is given to the Direction of Statistics, an official institution in charge of collecting and analyzing information about the people of the country. Thanks to its careful methods, the results of the census are considered very reliable.

Since the liberation of Bulgaria, every government has paid close attention to the work of the Direction of Statistics. The institution has provided valuable information that helps the state plan for the future. Its importance continues to grow as Bulgaria develops socially and economically Istanbul Tour Guides.

Role of the Direction of Statistics

The Direction of Statistics is well organized and employs trained workers who know how to gather accurate data. Because of this, the institution has detailed knowledge about different areas of national life that can be measured in numbers. These include the size of the population, economic activities, and social changes.

Census of 1905

The census taken on December 31, 1905, showed that the Principality of Bulgaria had a total population of 4,035,646 inhabitants. The following table presents the results of earlier censuses and shows how the population grew over time:

Census Year Male Population Female Population Total Population

1905 2,057,175 1,978,471 4,035,646

1900 1,909,567 1,834,716 3,744,283

1892 1,690,626 1,620,087 3,310,713

1887 1,605,389 1,548,986 3,154,375

1884 476,462 466,218 942,680*

1880 1,027,803 980,116 2,007,919

(*The figures for 1884 may cover only a part of the territory.)

Growth of the Population

From this table we can see that the population of Bulgaria grew quickly between 1880 and 1905. During this 25-year period, the number of inhabitants increased by 1,085,047 people. This rise shows the natural growth of the population, supported by better living conditions, greater stability, and the progress of the young Bulgarian state.

The steady increase also demonstrates how important accurate statistics are for understanding the development of a country. With such information, the government can make better decisions about health, education, economy, and infrastructure.

Examination of the Draft

After the Organic Statute was submitted, it was referred to a committee of fifteen members. Their task was to study the draft carefully and report back to the Constituent Assembly.

The debates that followed the committee’s report revealed that Bulgaria already had capable men who could guide the country’s political future. These discussions were intense and showed a high level of knowledge and understanding of governance.

Influential Figures in the Assembly

The principal speakers in the debates were mostly young men who had recently returned from European universities. They brought with them:

Knowledge of European law and politics.

Personal observations from their stay in European capitals.

Experiences of parliamentary life in countries like France, Belgium, and Serbia.

Unlike the traditional elite, most of these men were elected through popular suffrage, not born into privileged positions. They represented the ideas of civilisation, culture, and liberal values in an Assembly that still included many Turkish rayas Istanbul Tour Guide.

Even at this early stage, political tendencies were emerging that would later divide Bulgaria into distinct political parties.

The Committee’s Proposal

The committee proposed changes that were seen as more conservative than the original draft. Instead of a State Council, the committee suggested creating a Senate.

They also introduced property-based qualifications for voters. Citizenship alone did not give political rights. To vote or to become a member of the Assembly, a person had to meet specific financial requirements, which were especially strict for candidates.

These measures were designed to limit the influence of ordinary citizens and maintain control in the hands of wealthier individuals.

Rejection of the Committee’s Report

The Assembly rejected the committee’s report. Instead, members decided to consider the original Russian draft, discussing it point by point. This approach ensured that the final constitution would be more liberal and representative than the committee’s conservative proposals.

The debates on the draft show that even in its early stages, Bulgaria had politically aware leaders capable of shaping a modern constitutional government. The rejection of restrictive proposals in favor of the Russian draft laid the foundation for a more inclusive and democratic political system, balancing local traditions with European liberal ideas.

Liberal Changes in the Constitution

The original draft of the Organic Statute gave very few rights to the legislative body. Most of the legislative initiative—the power to propose new laws—was reserved for the Prince and the Government. Members of the National Assembly had little ability to create new laws or influence policy.

The Constituent Assembly played a key role in changing this. Many of the liberal institutions that now form part of the Bulgarian constitution were introduced by members of the Assembly. These changes were significant and gave the legislative body more independence and influence than originally planned.

Composition of the National Assembly

The draft gave the National Assembly more the character of a senate than a popular assembly. Not all members were to be elected by the people. Some were appointed by the Prince, while others were included by virtue of their office: the Exarch, bishops, and presidents of law courts all automatically became members Istanbul Tour Guide.

The State Council was another important institution proposed in the draft. Its responsibilities were:

Advising the Government in preparing bills.

Acting as the supreme administrative court.

Settling disputes between the judiciary and administrative organs.

Authorising extraordinary expenses and communal loans.

Approving expropriations for public utility.

Ensuring the observance of the constitution.

This made the State Council a powerful body, closely linked to the government.

The Constituent Assembly

The Constituent Assembly that reviewed the draft had 231 members. Its composition was as follows:

89 members elected by popular suffrage (one deputy per 10,000 male inhabitants).

21 members appointed by the Imperial Commissary, including 11 Mahommedans.

5 members representing various societies.

11 members representing the clergy: 9 Orthodox, 1 mufti, and 1 rabbi.

105 members were high officials, including presidents of law courts and departmental or municipal councils.

This mix ensured that different social, religious, and administrative groups were represented in the Assembly, giving it more authority and legitimacy.

Thanks to the initiative of the Constituent Assembly, Bulgaria’s constitution became more democratic and balanced than the original draft. The Assembly expanded the powers of legislators, ensured representation of different communities, and strengthened the rule of law. These reforms laid the foundation of modern Bulgarian governance and established a system that could adapt to the needs of a newly independent state.

Challenges During the Transitional Period

After the liberation of Bulgaria, the country entered a transitional period in which old Ottoman structures were replaced by modern European institutions. The Russians, who were in charge of establishing the new government, faced enormous difficulties in carrying out their task.

The main challenge was the ongoing state of war. Russian troops were still fighting to push the Ottoman army southwards, and the local population was often unsettled by the violence and uncertainty. The abolition of the former administration could not happen everywhere at the same time; it had to follow the progress of the Russian army, which advanced slowly and at great cost.

At first, the work of creating a new administration was like a “Tower of Babel.” Officials struggled to coordinate the various parts of the system, which were built from different, incompatible materials. The machinery of government was clumsy and inefficient, and only the efforts of highly skilled administrators kept it running Istanbul Tour Guide.

Preparation of the New Constitution

In addition to managing daily administration, the provisional government had the task of preparing a new constitution for Bulgaria. This task was assigned to the Russian professor Gradovsky, who was assisted by General Domontovitz.

The resulting document, written in Russian and titled the “Organic Statute,” was submitted to the Constituent Assembly at Tărnovo on February 10–22, 1879 by the Commissary-General, Dondoukoff-Korsakoff.

Sources and Influences

Very little is known about the specific sources used by Professor Gradovsky. However, it is clear that he was guided in part by the Treaty of Berlin, which had already defined the basic structure of Bulgaria’s government.

In addition, Gradovsky was strongly influenced by the Serbian and Belgian constitutions, which were examples of modern European governance at the time. He also drew inspiration from Russian communal institutions, particularly in giving autonomy to local communes. This allowed local communities to manage their own affairs within the broader framework of the new Principality.

The transitional period in Bulgaria was marked by chaos, war, and administrative challenges. Despite these difficulties, the Russians laid the foundations for a modern civil government. The preparation of the Organic Statute combined international guidance with local traditions and set the stage for Bulgaria’s first independent constitutional government.

Religious and Minority Courts

Separate Tribunals for Different Faiths

Under the new administrative system in Bulgaria after 1878, different religious communities were allowed to have their own tribunals. This included the Orthodox Christians, Mahommedans (Muslims), and Jews. Each of these groups could settle certain civil matters according to their own traditions.

The idea was to respect the diverse customs and traditions of the population while introducing a modern system of justice. However, plans to create commercial courts in major trade centers were never fully implemented.

Military Courts

The military courts continued to function as they had since the proclamation of July 1, 1877. Their jurisdiction and procedures were maintained, ensuring that military matters were handled separately from civil cases Istanbul Tour Guide.

Tolerance Towards the Mahommedans

The new government showed great tolerance toward the Mahommedans, who had recently been the ruling class under Ottoman rule. Several measures made this tolerance clear:

The official language of the courts was Bulgarian or Russian, which the Turkish population often could not understand.

The courts were instructed to respect local and national customs until new laws could be prepared.

These policies were designed to show that the new regime was different from the previous Ottoman system, which had been strict and intolerant toward the Christian population.

Special Turkish Civil Courts

To implement these principles, the Provisional Rules allowed the creation of special Turkish civil courts. These courts were distinct from the traditional religious courts that the Mahommedans had under Ottoman rule.

The Mahommedan courts had the same jurisdiction as the ordinary courts when both parties in a case were Muslims.

If the parties were of different nationalities, the case was heard jointly by the Mahommedan court and the ordinary court. The oldest member of the courts would act as the presiding judge.

This system ensured that justice respected both national and religious diversity, while gradually introducing the population to the new civil procedures of the Principality.

The creation of religious and minority courts was a key feature of early post-liberation Bulgaria. It allowed communities to maintain their traditions while ensuring fairness in civil matters. By combining Councils of Elders, ordinary courts, and special Mahommedan tribunals, the Provisional Rules created a flexible and inclusive system of justice that recognized the diverse population of the Principality.

The Appointment of Prince Dondoukoff-Korsakoff

After the Treaty of San Stefano, Russia was responsible for organising the civil government of Bulgaria. The choice fell on Prince Dondoukoff-Korsakoff, who was appointed as Commissary-General. Originally, he was given two years to complete this important task. However, the Treaty of Berlin (1878) shortened this period to only nine months, making his work much more difficult.

The First Administrative Council

To begin his mission, Korsakoff established an administrative council, which can be considered the first form of civil government in Bulgaria after the war. This council consisted of six members, each in charge of an important department:

Commissary’s chancery and diplomatic correspondence

Military affairs

Interior administration

Justice

Finance

Public instruction and religions

This was a significant step forward, as it gave Bulgaria its first organised governing body in modern times.

Division of Northern and Southern Bulgaria

For practical purposes, Northern Bulgaria was provisionally divided into sixteen departments, which were further subdivided into thirty-two districts Istanbul Daily Tour.

Southern Bulgaria, however, was treated differently. Known as Eastern Roumelia, it was given a special status under the Treaty of Berlin and placed under a separate administrative arrangement.

Judicial Reforms and the Provisional Rules

One of the most important achievements during this period was the reform of the judiciary system. The chief of the judiciary section, Lucanoff, created a commission to prepare regulations for justice. The result of their work was the document called “Provisional Rules for the Organisation of Justice in Bulgaria.”

These rules were officially proclaimed at Plovdiv on August 24, 1878. They introduced a completely new system of justice, replacing the old Ottoman institutions, most of which existed only in name.

Structure of the New Judiciary

Under the new rules, justice was placed in the hands of Councils of Elders and various courts.

Councils of Elders were created in every commune, giving local communities a voice in justice and administration.

Ordinary courts included district courts and departmental courts, the latter acting as courts of appeal.

Exceptional jurisdictions were also recognised. These included administrative, military, religious, and Mahommedan courts, each with specific responsibilities.

The work of Prince Dondoukoff-Korsakoff and his council laid the foundations of Bulgaria’s modern administration and judiciary system. Although his time was limited by the Treaty of Berlin, the establishment of councils, departments, and new courts marked a decisive break from the Ottoman past and gave Bulgaria the framework for its future as an independent principality.

Bulgarian Sovereignty

Bulgaria’s sovereignty depends on its strength. When Bulgaria is strong, it can consider itself fully sovereign. If the country is weak, its independence is limited and it is only half-sovereign. The clauses of the Treaty of Berlin concerning Bulgaria’s government were valid only until the country achieved autonomy. They applied before and during the Tirnova Constituent Assembly and continued to be in effect until the election of the Prince.

The Constituent Assembly and the Constitution

The constituent assembly met at Tirnova from February 10 to 22, 1879. During this meeting, the assembly passed the Constitution of Bulgaria, which remains the basis of the country’s laws today, with only minor modifications. After passing the Constitution, the assembly was dissolved and another assembly was convened to elect the Prince of Bulgaria. On April 29, 1879, Alexander of Battenberg was unanimously elected as Prince, marking the beginning of Bulgaria’s new autonomous government.

Key Historical Events

Several important events followed in Bulgaria’s modern history. On September 6, 1885, Eastern Roumelia united with Northern Bulgaria, strengthening the nation. Later that year, the Serbo-Bulgarian War took place, during which the Bulgarian army demonstrated great courage and won glory for the country. In 1887, Ferdinand I was elected Prince of Bulgaria, ensuring continuity of leadership and stability in the country Guided Tours Turkey.

Peace and Development

Since the election of Prince Ferdinand, Bulgaria has enjoyed long-lasting peace. This peaceful period allowed the country to focus on internal and external consolidation, the moral and intellectual development of its people, and the advancement of social, economic, and cultural enterprises. Today, Bulgaria ranks among the civilised and well-organized nations of Europe.

Foundation of a Dynasty

Another important milestone was the establishment of the royal dynasty. Through the marriage of Prince Ferdinand and the birth of Boris, Prince of Tirnova, Bulgaria secured its first heir to the throne, ensuring stability and continuity for the future of the Principality.

Principles of Bulgarian Law

The laws of Bulgaria were designed to respect the religious and civil rights of all citizens. People of different religions were allowed to exercise their civil and political rights without restriction and could hold public office. This was an important guarantee of equality for a country with a diverse population.

Commercial and International Relations

Bulgaria’s commercial relations were also regulated carefully. Commercial treaties concluded with the Ottoman Empire (the Porte) were binding on Bulgaria, and no changes could be made without the agreement of the Power involved. Transit duties could not be charged on goods passing through Bulgaria, protecting the freedom of trade. The rights and privileges of foreign subjects, including the right to consular jurisdiction and protection, were to remain valid until formally changed with the consent of the Powers concerned.

Tribute and Legal Authority

Bulgaria was required to pay tribute to Turkey and to participate in the debts of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgarians traveling in Turkey were subject to Turkish law and authorities, maintaining order and recognition of Ottoman sovereignty outside Bulgaria Guided Tours Turkey.

Autonomy and Sovereignty

While these provisions might suggest that Bulgaria had limited independence, the Treaty of Berlin clearly stated that immediately after the election of the Prince, Bulgaria would enjoy complete autonomy. This meant that in practice, Bulgaria became self-governing from the start. Over time, Bulgaria strengthened its government, gradually moving beyond the status of a vassal and tributary principality of 1878.

Modern Developments

As Bulgaria grew stronger, it was able to abolish the capitulations with the consent of all parties involved, stop paying tribute, and negotiate commercial treaties independently. Relations with Turkey became a matter of mutual agreement, and Bulgaria’s sovereignty increasingly depended on its political, moral, and military strength. Each day brought greater autonomy and recognition of Bulgaria as a sovereign state in the international community.

Election of the Bulgarian Prince

After the Russo-Turkish War and the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano, it was agreed that the Prince of Bulgaria would be freely chosen by the Bulgarian people. However, this choice also required the approval of the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman government) and the consent of the Great Powers of Europe. The Prince could not be a member of any reigning European family, ensuring that Bulgaria would have a leader connected primarily to the Bulgarian nation. If the throne became vacant, a new election would follow under the same conditions and procedures.

Preparation of the Constitution

Before the election of the Prince, an assembly of notables was to be convened. This assembly would include representatives of Bulgaria, a Turkish Commissioner, and an Imperial Commissioner. The assembly was responsible for drafting a constitutional statute, which would define the form of government, rights, and duties of citizens. The statute was to be modeled on the constitutions of other Danubian principalities established after the Treaty of Adrianople in 1830. The meetings of the assembly were planned to take place in Timova or Philippopolis, important centers of Bulgarian administration at the time Guided Tours Turkey.

Confirmation by the Treaties

The Treaty of San Stefano laid the foundation for this system, effectively sketching the form of government that Bulgaria would adopt. Later, the Congress of Berlin reviewed and confirmed these decisions. According to the Treaty of Berlin, Bulgaria was to be an independent Principality, still technically subject to the Ottoman Sultan, but governed by a Christian administration with a national militia. The election of the Prince and the drafting of the constitution were key steps in establishing the autonomy and self-governance of Bulgaria.

Significance

This process marked the first formal recognition of Bulgaria’s political independence in modern times. By combining the authority of the people, the oversight of the Ottoman government, and the guarantee of the Great Powers, Bulgaria was able to establish a constitutional and autonomous state, laying the foundation for its future development as a nation.

Ottoman Objections to the Proposed Reforms

During the Constantinople Conference, the Ottoman plenipotentiaries were allowed to present an alternative plan. They strongly protested against two key points of the Powers’ proposal: the appointment of Christian Governors and the establishment of a Commission of International Control. These points were central to the plan, as they guaranteed fairness and proper execution of the reforms.

The plan of the Powers was carefully prepared, based on notes and discussions exchanged between European Cabinets, especially the Austrian note of December 30, 1875. The Powers insisted on keeping the Christian Governors and the international supervision because no other measure would ensure that the reforms were actually carried out Guided Tours Turkey.

Failure of the Conference

Despite some concessions on minor points, the Ottoman representatives refused to compromise. They would not accept the presence of Christian governors or foreign supervision. As a result, the Conference ended without any agreement. The situation in the Balkans was growing tense, and the threat of war loomed over the region.

The Outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War

War finally broke out on April 12, 1877, when Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman government, which had stubbornly refused reforms, was forced to yield by military action. The conflict led to the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano, signed in March 1878.

Creation of the Autonomous Bulgarian Principality

The Treaty of San Stefano established Bulgaria as an autonomous Principality, still technically under Ottoman suzerainty (Article 6). Importantly, Bulgaria was granted a Christian government, reflecting the demands of the Bulgarian people, and a national militia for defense and internal security. These measures marked a major step toward independence, correcting decades of injustice and oppression under Ottoman rule.

Significance

The refusal of the Ottoman Empire at the Constantinople Conference and the subsequent victory of Bulgarian interests through war demonstrate how diplomatic efforts and armed struggle together shaped the foundation of modern Bulgaria. It also shows the critical role of international support in securing national rights and autonomy.

Proposed Administrative Reforms for Bulgaria

The plan presented by the Powers aimed to organize Bulgaria into a modern and fair administrative system. The main idea was to settle Christians and Muslims together in the districts in a balanced way, according to the population.

Local Administration

Each district was to have a mayor and a district council, both elected by universal suffrage. These councils would manage all local affairs independently, giving people control over their own communities.

Several districts would then form a Sandjak, headed by a prefect (mutesarif). The prefect would be either Christian or Muslim, depending on which religion was the majority in the Sandjak. The Governor-General would propose the prefect, and the Sultan (the Porte) would officially appoint him for four years Guided Tours Turkey.

Provincial Government

Two Sandjaks would form a province, governed by a Christian Governor-General. This Governor-General would be appointed by the Sultan for five years, but only with the consent of the Powers. The Governor-General would work with a provincial assembly, whose members were chosen by the district councils. Representation was set at one deputy for every 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants.

The provincial assembly would also select a ten-member administrative council. Every year, the assembly would meet to decide the budget and redistribute taxes, ensuring financial transparency and local participation.

Military and Language

The armed forces were to be concentrated in towns, while local militias would maintain order in the districts. The language of the majority nationality would be used in administration, alongside Turkish for official purposes.

International Oversight

To ensure that the reforms were carried out properly, a Commission of International Control would supervise the implementation. This commission would guarantee fairness and protect the rights of all communities.

Importance of the Plan

Although this plan was not fully implemented, it showed the Powers’ intention to modernize Bulgaria. It aimed to give the people self-government, religious equality, and protection, setting the foundation for the future Bulgarian Principality.

The Constantinople Conference and the Powers’ Proposal

In 1876, a conference was held in Constantinople to discuss reforms in the Balkans. At the first meeting, Comte de Chaudordy, the French Envoy Extraordinary, presented a project of reform on behalf of the Powers. This plan concerned Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Herzegovina.

While he spoke, the plenipotentiaries were startled by the sound of great guns. It was a carefully planned event. The President of the Conference, Sawfet Pacha, rose and announced that the firing celebrated the beginning of constitutional government in the Ottoman Empire. He declared:

“The great deed, which is this moment being accomplished, changes a state of things which has lasted six centuries. The Constitution, granted by His Majesty the Sultan to his peoples, is proclaimed. It opens for Turkey a new era of happiness and prosperity.”

However, this constitutional promise was short-lived. By the end of the morning, the Ottoman representatives rejected the proposals of the Powers. They argued that the Constitution already guaranteed liberty for all nationalities, using this as a reason to oppose foreign interference City Tours Istanbul.

Proposed Reforms for Bulgaria

The project for Bulgaria included dividing the Bulgarian-inhabited territories into two provinces.

Eastern Province: The capital was to be Timovo, and it would include the Sandjaks of Roustchouk, Timovo, Toultcha, Varna, Sliven, and Philippopolis (excluding Sultan-Eri and Ahi-Tchdebi), along with the kazas of Kirklisi, Moustapha-Pacha, and Kasilagatch.

Western Province: The capital was Sofia, including the Sandjaks of Sofia, Vidin, Nisch, Upkub, Monastir, the three kazas north of SMs, and the kazas of Stroumitza, Tikvesch, Velds, and Kastoria.

The Powers suggested that small districts, with populations ranging from 5,000 to 10,000 people, should serve as the basic administrative units. This plan aimed to provide better local governance while respecting the population distribution.

Significance of the Proposal

Although the Ottoman Empire rejected these measures, the Constantinople Conference marked an important step in international recognition of Bulgaria. For the first time, European powers officially addressed the question of Bulgarian autonomy. Even though the reforms were not immediately implemented, the conference laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of the Bulgarian Principality in 1878.

The Emancipation of the Bulgarian Church

The emancipation of the Bulgarian Church came before the political liberation of the country. While the political freedom of Bulgaria was influenced by foreign powers, the liberation of the national Church from the Greek patriarchate was entirely the work of dedicated Bulgarians. Their persistent efforts succeeded in 1870, when the Bulgarian Exarchate was officially established in Constantinople. This was a major step in preserving the Bulgarian language, culture, and national identity.

The Rise of a New Generation

While older and more conservative Bulgarians sought safety in religious independence, a new generation demanded more. Young Bulgarians, inspired by the hope of full freedom, began emigrating to neighboring countries, especially Romania. There, they formed organizations and prepared rebellions against Ottoman rule. These efforts were part of a wider movement in the Balkans, where Greeks, Romanians, and Serbians had already regained independence.

Rebellion and European Intervention

By 1875–1876, events in the Balkans attracted the attention of European powers. An uprising in Herzegovina coincided with the assassination of French and German consuls at Salonica by Muslim fanatics. At the same time, a revolt in the Bulgarian Sandjak of Philippopolis was brutally suppressed by Ottoman forces, resulting in widespread massacres. The horrors were reported across Europe, with British politician Gladstone voicing the outrage of the continent. Serbia, seeing an opportunity to secure its independence, sent its army across the Ottoman frontier City Tours Istanbul.

The Constantinople Conference

These disturbances forced the Great Powers to convene a conference in Constantinople from December 11–23, 1876. This conference was a historic moment for Bulgaria. For the first time, the name “Bulgaria” appeared in official international diplomacy. The conference also outlined the preliminary organization of the future Principality, laying the foundation for Bulgaria’s eventual political independence.

The period between the emancipation of the Church and the political liberation shows how Bulgarians combined spiritual leadership, national consciousness, and revolutionary energy to prepare for freedom. The Church acted as a beacon of national identity, while young patriots abroad organized and inspired the movement that would lead to the creation of modern Bulgaria.

Preservation of Bulgarian Identity under Ottoman Rule

Limited Turkish Interference

The Turks took pride in keeping themselves separate from the Bulgarians, and this indirectly helped the Bulgarian people preserve their national identity. The Ottomans were mostly interested in political control and did not interfere deeply in the spiritual life of the Bulgarians. They focused on maintaining their supremacy and crushing any attempts at independence but left the internal cultural and religious life largely untouched.

Religious Communities and Education

Bulgarians organized themselves into religious communities centered around the church. These communities had some autonomy, managing their churches and also running schools. Through these institutions, the people could maintain their culture and language. Religious communities became the guardians of national consciousness, allowing Bulgarians to pass on traditions, literacy, and spiritual values from one generation to the next City Tours Istanbul.

National Literature and Folk Songs

Bulgarian literature and folk songs played an essential role in preserving the national spirit. These songs, full of poetic melancholy, combined memories of the ancient Bulgarian kingdom with the hardships of life under Ottoman rule. The music and poetry of this period often reflect an Oriental influence, a trace of the cultural environment imposed by the Turks. Still, they mainly focused on expressing Bulgarian identity and longing for freedom.

Awakening of National Feeling

Despite the watchfulness of the Turkish authorities, these religious and cultural centers helped keep national feelings alive. By the early 19th century, when Russia declared war on Turkey in 1827, the Bulgarians began to awaken politically and culturally. Although initial hopes for liberation were disappointed, this period marked the beginning of national revival. The impulse for independence also influenced other Balkan nations such as the Romanians, Serbians, and Greeks, who started to awaken from long periods of political and social lethargy.

Life under Ottoman Rule

Social and Political Oppression

Ottoman rule over Bulgaria was harsh both politically and socially. The tyranny affected not only public life but also private life, social freedom, and moral values. Bulgarians were unable to freely develop their national identity or cultural traditions. Unlike modern political domination, which often respects personal freedom, Turkish rule did not guarantee individual liberty. Life, property, and honour were constantly under threat, and people lived in fear City Tours Istanbul.

Effects on Society

Over generations, many Bulgarians became passive and resigned to their fate. Yet, some strong and brave individuals resisted. Stories tell of men who, after family members were taken by Turkish officials, fled to the mountains to fight for freedom. These rebels, known as haidukes and voivodes, became legendary figures in Bulgarian songs and folklore. They preserved a spirit of liberty that would later unite the Bulgarian people during the struggle for national independence.

Religious and Cultural Limits

Interestingly, the Ottomans did not try to fully assimilate the Bulgarians. Unlike other empires that enforce the culture and religion of the rulers on conquered peoples, the Ottomans largely allowed Bulgarians to keep their language, religion, and traditions. There were some exceptions: Bulgarian children or young people were sometimes taken and forced to convert to Islam. But in general, the government did not impose Mohammedanism or attempt to erase Bulgarian identity.

The Spirit of Resistance

Despite oppression, the Bulgarians maintained their identity and faith. Families secretly taught their children about Bulgarian history and culture, while rebels kept the dream of freedom alive in the mountains. This cultural resilience became the foundation for the Bulgarian National Revival, which eventually led to liberation and the rebirth of the Bulgarian state in the 19th century.

The Reign of John and Peter Assen

A Golden Age

The reign of John and Peter Assen marked a brilliant period in Bulgarian history. Art and literature flourished as never before, and commerce developed greatly. Bulgaria once again became a respected and feared power abroad. The country enjoyed stability and prosperity while the Assen dynasty ruled, and the empire regained its strength and influence in the Balkans.

Decline of the Assen Dynasty

Unfortunately, this period of glory did not last. The Assen dynasty ended in 1237, and Bulgaria fell into the hands of usurpers. Once more, the country became divided, and several leaders, including Roman, George Terter, and Michael Shishman, tried to restore dynasties and protect Bulgaria. Despite their efforts, they failed to maintain unity City Tours Istanbul.

During this time, neighboring powers threatened Bulgaria from all sides. The Serbs attacked from the west, the Magyars from the north, and the Turks, already settled in the south of the peninsula, began to expand their control.

Ottoman Conquest

Bulgaria’s political independence ended as a result of the famous and tragic Battle of Kossovo in 1393. After this defeat, Bulgaria became a province of the Ottoman Empire. Soon afterward, the Bulgarian Church lost its autonomy and became subject to the Phanar in Constantinople, which controlled spiritual matters.

Life under Ottoman Rule

Under Ottoman rule, Bulgarians, like all other Christian peoples in the Balkans, lived under political and religious subjugation. Europe, preoccupied with its own wars, remained mostly ignorant of the suffering of the Christians in the Ottoman Empire. The domination was not only political but also cultural and spiritual, affecting every aspect of life.

Despite centuries of foreign rule, the Bulgarian people preserved their language, faith, and traditions, keeping alive the hope of eventual freedom. The Ottoman period, though harsh, is a crucial chapter in Bulgarian history, showing the resilience and endurance of the nation.

The Bulgarian Empire under Tsar Simeon

Expansion and Glory

Under Tsar Simeon, the son of Boris I, the Bulgarian Empire reached its greatest extent. The empire included Bulgaria proper, Wallachia, parts of Hungary and Transylvania, Albania, Epirus, Macedonia, and Thessaly. Simeon, no longer satisfied with the title of king, called himself Tsar, meaning “Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks.” This imperial title was used by Bulgarian rulers until the Ottoman conquest centuries later.

During Simeon’s reign, Bulgaria became a major political and military power in the Balkans. The arts, literature, and culture also flourished, making this period a golden age for the Bulgarian nation.

Decline and Internal Struggles

Unfortunately, the glory of Simeon’s reign did not last. Internal conflicts arose due to the jealousy and ambition of the nobility, called the boyars. These knights and officials had great influence and often challenged the central authority City Tours Istanbul.

During the reign of Boris II (963 AD), a boyar named Shishman Mokar seized control of Western Bulgaria, creating a separate kingdom. At the same time, Bulgaria faced external threats. The Russians invaded, and Boris II sought help from the Byzantine Emperor John Tzimisces, who exploited the situation to gain control of the kingdom.

Tsar Samuel and Temporary Reunification

The successor of Shishman, Tsar Samuel, restored the Bulgarian state. His reign was almost as brilliant as Simeon’s, and he reunited the kingdom, establishing Prespa as the capital. However, after long wars with Byzantium, Bulgaria was eventually subjugated in 1015.

The people, who had never experienced foreign rule, longed for freedom. Many revolts occurred, showing the Bulgarians’ persistent desire for independence.

The Revival of the Bulgarian Kingdom

Around 1186, two brothers, John and Peter Assen, led a successful rebellion against Byzantine control. They re-established the Bulgarian kingdom and made their hometown, Tarnovo, the new capital. From that time, Tarnovo became the historic and cultural center of Bulgaria, symbolizing the nation’s revival and resilience.

The Bulgars and Slavs

The Formation of the Bulgarian Nation

When the Slavs arrived in the Balkan Peninsula, they found other tribes living there. The Slavs had a stronger character, and they imposed their language and customs on the local populations. Later, the Bulgars, who came from the Volga region, also mixed with the Slavs. Over time, the Bulgars adopted the Slavic language and some of their customs.

However, the Bulgars gave their name to the new, mixed nation. Thanks to their energy, discipline, and organizational skills, they assumed political control. This led to the establishment of the Bulgarian kingdom, which quickly expanded its territory. The Bulgars were known for their warlike abilities, patriotism, and strong leadership City Tours Istanbul.

Bulgarian Power and Influence

Under their kings, the Bulgarians became a powerful military force. They threatened Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, and even forced the Greek Emperor to seek friendship and pay tribute. The kingdom reached its greatest extent during the reign of King Kroum, who strengthened both the army and the state.

Introduction of Christianity

One of the most important events in Bulgarian history was the introduction of Christianity. This happened during the reign of King Boris I at the end of the 9th century. Boris became the first Christian king of Bulgaria, marking the start of Bulgaria’s transformation into a civilized and organized country.

Cultural and Literary Development

At the same time, the great apostles Cyril and Methodius created the Cyrillic alphabet, which would later be used by all Slavic peoples, including Russia. This invention laid the foundation for Bulgarian national culture. With the new script and Christian teachings, a literary movement began in Bulgaria, helping the country develop education, literature, and religious texts in its own language.

Through these events, Bulgaria became not only a military power but also a cultural and spiritual center in the Balkans, shaping the identity of the Bulgarian nation for centuries to come.

The Bulgarians

Historical Overview

The study of Bulgarian history begins with an important question: the origin of the Bulgarian people. Like other Southern Slavs, the roots of the Bulgarians are complex and debated. Historians have studied this for centuries, but there is still no complete agreement.

The most widely accepted theory, proposed by the Slav historian Jirecek, provides a clear picture. According to him, the Balkan Peninsula has been inhabited since ancient times by several different tribes. Among them were the Thraco-Ulyrians, Thraco-Macedonians, and Thraco-Dacians.

Around the beginning of the third century, the Slavs appeared in the region. They crossed the Danube River and settled in the broad plains between the river and the Balkan Mountains. Over time, the Slavs moved southward, forming communities among the local populations, including the Thraco-Ulyrians, the Romanians, and the Greeks. This migration continued for several centuries City Tours Istanbul.

In the seventh century of the Christian era, another group arrived: a Finno-Ugric tribe known as the Bulgars or Bolgars. They came from the Volga region, traveled across Russia, and eventually reached ancient Moesia, located between the Danube and the Black Sea. This tribe established control over the northeastern Balkans, blending with the local Slavs over time.

Through these migrations and mixing of peoples, the modern Bulgarian nation began to take shape. The Slavs contributed their language and customs, while the Bulgars provided political and military organization. The fusion of these groups created the unique cultural and ethnic identity of Bulgaria, which still influences the country today.

Aquatic and Marine Animals

Bulgaria has a rich variety of aquatic animals. The otter (Lutra vulgaris) lives near rivers and streams and can be seen in the summer in the lakes of the Rilo Mountains. In the Black Sea, the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) is often found near the coast. Seals live in caves along the Black Sea, especially near Bulgarian Dobrudja.

Birds

Bulgaria is home to many species of birds, both resident and migratory. Every spring and autumn, numerous birds pass through the country on their way to northern or southern regions. Many northern birds spend the summer in Bulgaria and migrate south in the winter.

Birds of prey, such as the eagle, owl, and falcon, are common. Game birds include pigeons, woodcock, partridges, pheasants, moorhens, bustards, snipes, wild geese, and wild ducks. The variety of birds reflects the diversity of Bulgaria’s forests, plains, and wetlands City Tours Istanbul.

Reptiles and Chelonia

Bulgaria has several species of turtles and tortoises, both land and water types. There are also various snakes, including the non-poisonous Elapakis quadriliniatus, which can reach up to two metres in length, and poisonous species such as the Vipera berus and Vipera ammodytes.

Fish

Bulgarian rivers, streams, marshes, and the Black Sea support a wide variety of fish. In the Danube, the most common species belong to the genus Acipenser, including the sturgeon, cod, silurus, carp, and bream. Tributaries of the Danube have barbel and nasus, while the Black Sea is home to species like mudfish and mackerel.

Domestic and Farm Animals

Animals useful to humans are divided into three groups: domestic pets, beasts of burden, and animals for food.

Domestic pets: cats and dogs.

Beasts of burden: buffalo, ox, horse, donkey, and mule.

Food animals: sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, geese, ducks, chickens, turkeys, and pigeons.

These animals play an important role in agriculture, transport, and daily life in Bulgaria. The country’s climate, rivers, and forests create ideal conditions for supporting a rich and diverse animal population.

Agriculture and Crops

Major Crops

Bulgaria produces a variety of high-quality agricultural products. Tobacco of excellent quality is grown at the foot of the Rhodopes and in the Strouma valley. Cotton is mainly cultivated in the southeastern districts, while hemp and flax are abundant in the southwestern regions.

Other crops include aniseed, sesame, and poppies in the south and southwest, and colza in the north. Roses, especially in Kazanlik and Karlovo, are cultivated extensively for their oil. Since the introduction of the sugar industry, the cultivation of beetroot has expanded rapidly City Tours Istanbul.

Vegetables and salads grow in market gardens near towns and villages. Important fruit trees include hazel, walnut, almond, apple, pear, quince, plum, peach, and apricot. In southern Bulgaria, figs and pomegranates are also grown. The plains of Kustendil and Gabrovo are especially rich in fruit trees and provide valuable material for export.

Fauna

Wild Animals

Bulgaria’s wildlife reflects that of southern and central Europe. Because the population is still sparse and there are many uninhabited areas, wild animals have not disappeared. However, carnivorous animals and birds of prey still pose a threat to domestic animals and poultry.

Notable species include:

Bear (Ursus arctos) – lives in the mountain forests

Wolf (Canis lupus) – found throughout the country

Jackal – mainly in the Stara-Planina, though numbers are decreasing

Fox – widespread

Wild boar – common in forests and hills

Wild cat, polecat, and others

Game Animals

Hunting is important in Bulgaria, and several species of game are still present:

Stag (Cervus elaphus) – now mainly in large forests

Chamois (Capra rupicapra) – found on the steep rocks of the Rilo and Stara-Planina mountains

Roebuck (Cervus capreolus) – found in all mountain areas

Hare – widespread across plains and hills

Bulgaria’s natural wealth in crops, fruits, and wildlife shows the country’s diversity of agriculture and ecology, combining fertile plains with mountainous forests that support both human and animal life.

Forests and Vegetation

Forests of the Plains and Mountains

The plains of Bulgaria are mostly covered with oak forests (Quercus species). These oaks grow widely and are the most common trees in the lower areas. Above 500 metres, the beech tree (Fagus sylvatica) becomes the dominant species and is the most important tree of the Bulgarian mountains.

In the middle mountain zones, oaks and beeches grow together. Oaks cover the lower slopes, while beeches dominate the upper slopes. Evergreen oaks are found above 1,000 metres. Other trees mixed with oak and beech include hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), elm (Alnus glutinosa), and plane trees (Acer pseudoplatanus) Turkey Sightseeing.

Above the beech forests, particularly in the Rhodopes and Rilo mountains, conifer forests are common. These include fir trees (Abies pectinate, Picea excelsa), pines (Pinus silvestris, Pinus laricio), and juniper (Juniperus nana). In some areas, the beech has replaced the conifers, making them rare in the Stara-Planina and Ossogovo mountains.

On the hills and lower slopes, forests are replaced by shrubs, brambles, and thorns. Among these, lilac groves (Syringa vulgaris) are especially characteristic. The north ridge of the Rhodopes provides a clear example of the vertical distribution of trees:

Oaks grow up to 700 metres

Beech trees up to 1,300 metres, mixed with conifers above 1,100 metres

The highest tree-covered region reaches 1,900 metres

Southern Bulgaria and Agriculture

Southern Bulgaria, sheltered from cold north winds by the Stara-Planina, is rich in southern plants. The main crops grown are wheat, maize, and barley. Other crops include rye, oats, millet, and spelt, while buckwheat is rare. Rice is common in the Maritza valley, and potatoes are being introduced in less fertile areas.

Fruit cultivation is important. Grapes grow well up to 500 metres, while mulberry trees thrive in lower zones. This combination of forests and fertile plains makes Bulgaria rich in natural resources and agricultural potential, supporting both mountain and lowland communities.

Snowfall and Climate

Snowfall

Snow usually falls in Bulgaria from November to April. The frequency and amount of snow vary depending on the location:

Sofia: average of 42.2 days with snow per year

Philippopolis (Plovdiv): 14.8 days

Bourgas: 12.8 days

This shows that mountainous and northern areas receive more snow than southern and coastal regions. Snow cover often supports winter agriculture and maintains water supplies for rivers and streams.

Moisture and Clouds

Bulgaria’s climate is between the Mediterranean and Central European climates. The average cloud density during the year ranges from 5 at Philippopolis to 5.5 at Gabrovo Turkey Sightseeing.

November is the cloudiest month, with Sofia recording 7.9 on average.

August is the clearest month, with Bourgas at 2.6.

Humidity also varies: the average moisture is 70% at Gabrovo and 79% at Bourgas. Moisture decreases in summer to 58% and rises to 66% in December. Atmospheric pressure is highest in summer at Philippopolis (13.3) and lowest in January at Gabrovo (3.4).

Vegetation

Forests and Flora

Bulgaria’s vegetation reflects its geographical and climatic diversity. The mountains are covered with forests similar to those of Central Europe, including oaks, beeches, and pines. The northern plains along the Danube resemble the Russian steppes, with open grasslands. In contrast, Southern Bulgaria produces plants typical of southern Europe and Mediterranean regions.

Historically, Bulgaria was very rich in forests, as travellers’ memoirs confirm. However, reckless logging and mining have destroyed much of this wealth. Today, the remaining forests are mostly in remote mountain areas, far from towns and major roads. These forests are important for biodiversity, water conservation, and maintaining soil fertility.

Bulgaria’s climate, snowfall, and vegetation are influenced by its mountains, plains, and position between Central Europe and the Mediterranean. Snowfall provides water for rivers, while cloud and humidity patterns affect agriculture. Despite past deforestation, the remaining forests and diverse plant life continue to support the country’s ecological and economic balance, giving Bulgaria a unique natural environment.

Geography and Climate of Bulgaria

Continental Climate

Bulgaria has a continental climate, with significant differences between summer and winter. The average temperature in the country is around 20°C during the warmest parts of the year. The hottest day recorded in the last ten years was August 7th, 1896, in Plevna at 41.8°C, while the coldest was January 6th, 1894, in Gabrovo at -25.0°C. This shows that Bulgaria experiences hot summers and very cold winters, typical of continental regions.

Winds

The winds in Bulgaria are influenced by Europe’s overall barometric conditions. The westerly and north-westerly winds are the most common. Northerly and north-easterly winds occur less often. Some areas have local wind patterns; for example, Gabrovo often experiences southerly winds. The winds are usually strong and persistent throughout the year, affecting both temperature and rainfall distribution Turkey Sightseeing.

Rainfall

Bulgaria has moderate rainfall, positioned between the wetter climate of Western Europe and the drier regions of Eastern Europe. The rainy season corresponds to that of Eastern Europe, but there is enough rainfall during the other seasons to support agriculture. The average annual rainfall is 26.5 inches, while coastal regions along the Black Sea receive at least 17.6 inches.

Seasonal rainfall in major towns:

Sofia: 193.2 rainy days, 26.2 inches; Spring 27.6%, Summer 34.2%, Autumn 21.7%, Winter 16.8%

Plevna: 143.7 rainy days, 23 inches; Spring 28%, Summer 37.1%, Autumn 16.6%, Winter 18.3%

Bourgas: 123.3 rainy days, 23.3 inches; Spring 25.7%, Summer 27.5%, Autumn 19.7%, Winter 26.7%

Philippopolis (Plovdiv): 110.9 rainy days, 20.8 inches

Gabrovo: 169.5 rainy days, 35.1 inches; Spring 23.5%, Summer 34.5%, Autumn 21.6%, Winter 20.4%

These figures show that summer is the wettest season, while winter is generally drier, except in some regions like Bourgas.

Bulgaria’s climate is shaped by mountains, plains, and its position in the Balkans. It has hot summers, cold winters, and moderate rainfall spread unevenly across the seasons. The winds and rainfall patterns play a crucial role in agriculture, forestry, and daily life. Despite seasonal variations, Bulgaria’s climate supports fertile plains, rich forests, and scenic mountainous landscapes, making it suitable for both farming and tourism.

Climate of Bulgaria

General Climate

Bulgaria has a moderate continental climate, but it is influenced by its location in the eastern Balkan Peninsula. The country is exposed to cold and dry winds from the northwest, while the northeasterly winds keep temperatures low during the winter. These factors make Bulgaria cooler than other areas at the same latitude.

The mountains and plains also influence local weather. The mountain regions experience colder temperatures and more snow in winter, while the lowlands and river valleys are warmer and more suitable for agriculture Turkey Sightseeing.

Mean Annual Temperature

Climatological data from 1884 to 1903 give an idea of average temperatures in some important towns:

Sofia (550 metres above sea level): 9.9°C

Plevna (105 metres): 11.2°C

Bourgas (14 metres): 12.5°C

Philippopolis (Plovdiv, 160 metres): 12.4°C

Gabrovo (375 metres): 10.0°C

If we adjust these figures to sea level, the greatest temperature difference among towns is about 15°C, and the average isotherm passing through Bulgaria is 12°C. Considering that the mean altitude of Bulgaria is 425 metres, the average annual temperature for the entire country is roughly 10°C.

Seasonal Temperatures

The coldest month is January, and the hottest month is July. Average temperatures in these months for key towns are:

Town January (°C) July (°C) Difference (°C)

Sofia 1.9 20.6 18.7

Plevna -1.5 23.2 24.7

Bourgas 1.9 22.8 20.9

Philippopolis 0.4 23.5 23.1

Gabrovo -1.1 20.4 21.5

The difference between winter and summer temperatures shows that Bulgaria has cold winters and warm summers, typical of a continental climate.

Climate Summary

Overall, Bulgaria’s climate varies with altitude and region. Mountains are cold and snowy, while plains are warmer and fertile. The north-eastern and north-western winds influence the weather, making winters colder. This climate is favorable for agriculture, forestry, and human settlement, while also giving Bulgaria distinct seasons for tourism and outdoor activities.

Rivers of Bulgaria

The Maritza River

The Maritza is the main river of Southern Bulgaria. Many streams flow into it, originating from the Rhodopes, Stara Planina, and Sredna-Gora mountains.

The tributaries on the right bank, coming from the forests of the Rhodopes, maintain a steady flow throughout the year. In contrast, the tributaries on the left bank, coming from the bare rocks of the Stara-Planina, are less consistent. They are swift and deep during spring and the rainy season, but almost dry up in the summer Turkey Sightseeing.

The Tundzha and the Arda are the main tributaries of the Maritza. The Tundzha rises in the Stara Planina, while the Arda begins in the Rhodopes. Both rivers join the Maritza near Adrianople (Edirne). Beyond Tatar-Pazardjik, the Maritza flows more slowly, and this slow flow is used to transport timber. Logs are tied together and floated downstream like simple rafts—a method used for centuries.

Other Bulgarian Rivers

Not many rivers in Bulgaria flow directly into the Black Sea. The most important among them are the Kamtchia and the Pravadiska, which drain the eastern part of the country.

Lakes and Lagoons

Bulgaria has relatively few lakes. Some lagoon-like lakes exist near the Black Sea, created partly by the changes in sea level. The most important of these are:

Guebedja (about 20 metres deep)

Salt Lake, near Anhialo

Nafakioi

Atanaskioi

Mandren

In addition, along the Danube, many isolated creeks have become marshes, especially between the mouths of the Iskar and the Yantra rivers.

Mountain Lakes and Marshes

There are also lakes and marshes in the mountain valleys of the Rila and western Rhodopes. These areas contain over a hundred high-altitude lakes, often found among rocky peaks. Many of these resemble the famous “Sea Eyes” of the Carpathians, with clear, cold waters surrounded by steep cliffs.

Bulgaria’s rivers, lakes, and marshes not only shape the geography of the land but also provide water resources, irrigation, and transportation for the country. From the swift mountain streams to the wide plains of the Maritza, the hydrography of Bulgaria plays a vital role in its economy and natural beauty.

The Danube River and Its Tributaries

The Course of the Danube

The Danube River begins in the Black Forest mountains of Germany. From there, it flows through Germany and Austria-Hungary, then forms the natural boundary between Serbia and Romania, and later between Bulgaria and Romania. Finally, it empties into the Black Sea, where it forms a large delta.

The Danube is one of Europe’s most important and powerful rivers. It discharges about 5,000 cubic metres of water every second. The width of its riverbed varies between 700 and 1,200 metres, making it wide enough for heavy river traffic and navigation.

Depth and Freezing of the River

The Danube also varies in depth at different places along the Bulgarian frontier:

Near Widin: about 8 metres,

Near Rahovo: about 7.7 metres,

Near Nicopolis: about 12.09 metres,

Near Ruse (Rustchuk): about 4 metres.

The river’s water level can vary by as much as 5.05 metres during the year. The Danube has also been known to freeze in winter. Between 1836 and 1896, it froze over thirteen times. On average, the ice lasts for about thirty-nine days each year. The longest period of freezing happened during the severe winter of 1878–1879 Sightseeing Turkey.

Tributaries of the Danube in Bulgaria

Several important rivers flow into the Danube from Bulgaria. These include:

The Lom,

The Ogosta,

The Iskar,

The Vit,

The Osam, and

The Yantra.

Most of these tributaries rise in the Stara Planina Mountains, except the Iskar, which begins in the Rila Mountains. The Iskar is especially notable because it cuts through the Stara Planina in a magnificent gorge.

Use of River Power

These streams provide valuable water power for local communities. For centuries, their fast-moving waters have been used to turn small mills, which stand in long rows along the rivers. As the rivers reach the plains, however, they slow down. Their beds grow deeper, they become harder to cross, and the mills disappear.

Floods occur fairly often, but they are rarely destructive. The tributaries rely mostly on mountain water sources, and they gradually lose part of their flow as they move toward the Danube. Together, they add about 250 cubic metres of water per second to the mighty river—much less compared to the Danube’s own enormous flow.

The Danube is not only a geographical border for Bulgaria but also a lifeline. It provides water, transport, and trade opportunities, while its tributaries supply power and irrigation for agriculture. Despite its challenges—such as freezing winters and occasional floods—the Danube has always played a central role in the history and daily life of Bulgaria.

Hydrography of Bulgaria

General Features

The hydrography of Bulgaria, or the system of its rivers and waters, is shaped both by the climate and by the country’s geographical position. Three great basins receive all of Bulgaria’s waters:

The Danube River to the north,

The Black Sea to the east, and

The Aegean Sea (Archipelago) to the south.

Bulgaria has no single large river that dominates its territory, since the numerous mountain ranges divide the land into smaller valleys. As a result, most rivers remain short and separated. The only important exception is the Iskar River, which flows across the entire width of the country, from the Rila Mountains through Sofia and into the Danube Sightseeing Turkey.

The Danube River

The Danube forms the entire northern frontier of Bulgaria. It is one of the longest and most important rivers in Europe. For Bulgaria, it serves as both a natural border and a transportation route. Many small tributaries from the Danubian Plain flow northward into it. However, due to the flat terrain near its banks, navigation is not always easy, and seasonal changes in water levels affect transport.

The Black Sea

The Black Sea is the second great water basin for Bulgaria. It is an inland sea stretching 1,187 kilometres from east to west and 613 kilometres from north to south. According to geographer Strelbutski, its total area is 423,973 square kilometres. The average depth is about 1,100 metres, while its deepest point reaches 2,616 metres south of the Crimean Peninsula.

Closer to Bulgaria, however, the sea is quite shallow. For the first two to three kilometres from the coast, the depth is often only 8 to 10 metres. In addition, the coastline is not easy for ships: in some places it is steep and mountainous, and in others marshy and broken. These natural difficulties made navigation and trade challenging in earlier times.

Bulgarian Ports

Despite these problems, Bulgaria has worked hard to improve access to the Black Sea. Through great effort and sacrifice, the country has built two modern harbours that meet international standards: Varna and Burgas. These ports today serve as Bulgaria’s main gateways for international trade and travel.

The rivers and seas of Bulgaria may not be as vast as those of larger countries, but they play a crucial role in the nation’s geography, economy, and history. The Danube connects Bulgaria with central and western Europe, while the Black Sea ports open the country to global trade. The unique hydrography of Bulgaria, shaped by its mountains, rivers, and coasts, has always influenced the development of its people and their connection with the wider world.

The Mountains of Southeastern Bulgaria

The Sakar and Strandja Mountains

To the east of the Sasliyka River, and stretching as far as the Maritsa River, rise the Sakar Mountains (854 m) and the Strandja Mountains (1,035 m). These mountain chains, together with smaller ridges, form what the geographer Hochsteiger called the Toundja Group. Though not very high compared to other Bulgarian mountains, they are important in shaping the landscape of southeastern Bulgaria.

The Vitosha and Nearby Ranges

Vitosha Mountain

One of the most famous mountains in Bulgaria is the Vitosha, which rises directly above the plain of Sofia, the country’s capital. Its highest summit, Cherni Vrah (Black Peak), stands at 2,285 metres. Vitosha is not only a symbol of Sofia but also a popular place for hiking, skiing, and recreation Sightseeing Turkey.

Verila Planina

Close to Vitosha lies the Verila Planina (1,419 m). This mountain acts as a natural connection between the Vitosha and the Rila Mountains. It also forms a watershed dividing the rivers Iskar and Struma. On one side of Verila lies the plain of Dupnitsa, and on the other, the plain of Samokov.

The Southwest Border Ranges

Ossogovo Mountain

At the extreme southwest frontier, right on the border with Turkey and North Macedonia, stands the Ossogovo range. Its highest peak, Ruen (Rouen), reaches 2,277 metres. This region is known for its beautiful forests and rich wildlife.

Kraishté and Roui Mountain

Between the plains of Kyustendil and Znepole lies a rugged mountainous area called Kraishté. Some of its peaks are quite high, such as Ouchi (1,927 m). Above the Znepole plain rises the striking Rui Mountain, which reaches 1,706 metres.

Valleys and Ancient Lakes

Throughout southwestern Bulgaria, numerous hills and ridges stretch into the territory of modern-day Serbia. This part of the country is full of deep valleys, which geological studies have shown to be the remains of ancient lakes that dried up long ago. The most notable valleys are those of Sofia, Samokov, Dupnitsa, Kyustendil, Radomir, Pernik, and Znepole. These fertile areas have always been important for farming and settlement.

The Danubian Plain

North of the last peaks of the Stara Planina begins the Danubian Plain, a vast lowland stretching to the Danube River. Many tributary rivers cut across this plain, flowing north into the Danube. The geological structure here is mainly horizontal strata, which makes the land suitable for cultivation. This plain is one of Bulgaria’s richest agricultural zones.

The mountains and plains of southern and northern Bulgaria create a landscape of great variety. From the modest Sakar and Strandja Mountains in the southeast to the high peaks of Vitosha and Ossogovo in the southwest, and finally to the broad Danubian Plain in the north, Bulgaria’s geography combines high ridges, fertile valleys, and wide farmlands. These features have shaped not only the natural beauty of the country but also its history, economy, and culture.

The Central Stara Planina

Landscape and Peaks

The central section of the Stara Planina is also bounded by peaks on the north side. Its southern slopes descend steeply into the level plains, creating a sharp contrast in the landscape. From this part of the range, travelers can enjoy views of the highest peaks of the Stara Planina.

Several summits rise above 2,000 metres. Among them, the Yumrukchal (Botev Peak) stands at 2,372 metres, making it the tallest in this section.

Mountain Passes

Surprisingly, despite its great height, the central part of the Stara Planina contains some of the best mountain passes. The Araba Konak and Hainboaz (Pass of the Republic) are each less than 1,000 metres high, making them relatively easy to cross Sightseeing Turkey.

Other passes are higher, ranging between 1,300 and 1,700 metres, but they are still more accessible than might be expected. This is because the mountains here are narrower, and the surrounding plains gradually penetrate into the heart of the range.

The most famous route is the Shipka Pass (1,260 m). It has great historical importance, especially during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, when fierce battles for Bulgarian liberation were fought there.

The Eastern Stara Planina

Structure and Features

The eastern section of the Stara Planina is very different from the central and western parts. Here, the mountains are lower and less rugged. The geological folds are more superficial, and as a result, there are no very high peaks or ancient rock formations.

Instead, the range is divided into several longitudinal chains, shaped partly by the proximity of the Black Sea. Although the area does not have great summits, its structure makes it less accessible.

The Sredna Gora Mountains

Connection with Other Ranges

Running parallel to the Stara Planina to the south is the Sredna Gora mountain chain. Like the Stara Planina, it gradually decreases in height toward the east.

At the western end, the Ihtiman Mountain forms a kind of nucleus that links together the Rila, the Rhodopes, the Stara Planina, and the Sredna Gora. It also separates the river basins of the Iskar and the Maritsa.

Peaks and Valleys

The valley of the Strema River divides the Sredna Gora into two distinct sections:

The Sredna Gora proper – high, thickly forested, and picturesque

The Karadja Dagh (Roebuck Mountain) – lower but equally significant

The highest summit of the chain is Great Bogdan Peak (1,574 m).

Fertile Plains

Between the Stara Planina and the Sredna Gora lie some of Bulgaria’s most fertile plains, such as:

Zlatitsa

Karlovo

Kazanlak (famous for its production of rose oil)

Sliven

To the south, between the Rhodopes and the Sredna Gora, extends the wide and fertile Maritsa Plain, one of Bulgaria’s richest agricultural regions.

The central and eastern Stara Planina and the Sredna Gora mountains form an important part of Bulgaria’s natural geography. They provide not only dramatic landscapes and strategic passes but also fertile valleys that have supported Bulgarian culture, agriculture, and history for centuries.

The Rhodope Mountains

General Features

The Rhodopes resemble the Rila Mountains in their western part. However, as we move eastward, their character changes. The slopes become steeper, while the height of the mountains gradually decreases. Their outlines also become softer and more undulating, giving the landscape a different appearance.

The main spurs of the Rhodopes extend northward as far as the Bulgarian frontier, where they descend sharply into the fertile Maritsa Plain. This contrast between steep slopes and wide plains makes the region very picturesque.

Plateaus and Peaks

Streams flowing from the areas around Adrianople and Haskovo have divided the eastern Rhodopes into many plateaus running from east to west. The watersheds in this region reach about 2,000 metres above sea level Sightseeing Turkey.

Some of the most important peaks in the Rhodopes are:

Sutkia (2,187 m)

Batachki Snezhnik (2,082 m)

Chepelarski Karlik (2,186 m)

These high summits add to the wild beauty of the mountains.

Roads and Communication

Like the Rila Mountains, the Rhodopes do not offer an easy road into Turkey. Instead, the main roads have to wind around the mountains. On the eastern side, they follow the course of the Maritsa River, while on the western side, they follow the Struma Valley. This made travel and trade historically challenging in the region.

The Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains)

Length and Structure

The Stara Planina, also known as the Balkan Mountains, stretches across Bulgaria from the Timok River in the west to the Black Sea in the east. The chain is about 600 kilometres long, with an average width of only 30 kilometres.

Geological studies show that the Stara Planina was formed by horizontal layers of rock pushed upward by pressure from the south. This long chain forms one of the most important natural features of Bulgaria.

Division into Three Parts

Orographically and geologically, the Stara Planina divides into three main sections:

Western Stara Planina – from the Timok River to the Iskar Gorge

Central Stara Planina – from the Iskar Gorge to Demir Kapia

Eastern Stara Planina – stretching to the Black Sea coast

Each part has its own unique landscape and natural importance.

The Western Stara Planina

The western section is flanked on both the north and south by parallel chains of peaks. The northern slopes are the steepest and most imposing.

The highest peak in this part is Midzhur, which rises to 2,165 metres. This region is known for being difficult to access, with rugged terrain and steep valleys.

The only important passes are:

Sveti Nikola Pass (1,302 m)

Petrohan Pass (1,438 m)

These mountain passes have historically served as key routes for crossing the chain, though travel through them has never been easy.

The Rhodope and Stara Planina mountains are two of the most important natural features of Bulgaria. The Rhodopes are known for their plateaus, steep slopes, and high peaks, while the Stara Planina forms a long chain dividing the country into northern and southern regions. Together, these mountains have shaped Bulgaria’s geography, history, and way of life, providing both natural beauty and challenges for communication and development.

The Geography of Bulgaria

Land Distribution and Altitude

The total surface of Bulgaria can be divided according to altitude, showing how much land lies at different heights above sea level:

0–200 metres: 35,545.9 sq. km (37.3% of the territory)

200–500 metres: 31,439.2 sq. km (33%)

500–900 metres: 16,068.8 sq. km (16.9%)

900–1,400 metres: 9,097 sq. km (9.6%)

1,400–2,000 metres: 2,570.6 sq. km (2.7%)

2,000 metres and above: 486.8 sq. km (0.5%)

These figures show that nearly 70% of Bulgaria’s territory is suitable for a high degree of cultivation. The average height of the country is 425 metres above sea level, giving it both fertile plains and mountainous terrain Turkey Sightseeing.

The Mountain Systems

The character of Bulgaria is strongly shaped by its mountain ranges. Four main groups can be identified:

The Rilo-Rhodope Massif

The Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains)

The Danubian Plateau

The transitional belt between the Rilo-Rhodope system and the winding chain of the Stara Planina

These ranges create a varied landscape of valleys, cliffs, rivers, and fertile basins.

The Rilo and Rhodope Mountains

The Rilo and Rhodope Mountains together form a compact mass, with branches spreading in all directions. Their most striking feature is the dramatic cliffs suddenly cut by valleys, which surprise travelers with their depth and beauty. Within these valleys lie pools and small lakes, giving the scenery a unique charm.

The mountains also contain large blocks of igneous rock, a reminder of their ancient geological origins.

The Rila Mountains – The Highest in Eastern Europe

The Rila Mountains are the highest in Bulgaria and indeed in all of Eastern Europe. Many peaks rise above 2,700 metres, and the tallest, Musala Peak, reaches 2,924 metres above sea level.

The northern and eastern slopes of the Rila are dotted with glacial lakes, enclosed by rocky cliffs and surrounded by peaks covered with perpetual snow. These features give the Rila Mountains a strong resemblance to the Alps.

Bulgaria’s geography is marked by a balance between fertile valleys and imposing mountains. While much of its land can be cultivated, its mountains—especially the Rila and Rhodope ranges—give it a dramatic natural beauty. The Rila Mountains, with their snow-covered peaks and alpine character, stand as the crown of Bulgaria’s landscape and the pride of Eastern Europe.

Bulgaria’s Determination to Progress

The Principality of Bulgaria is firmly determined to continue along the path of progress it has chosen for itself. The young nation is always ready to take advantage of opportunities to show Europe its commitment to development and modern civilization. Despite limited resources, Bulgaria has taken part in international projects designed to promote the progress of the world.

One example is its participation in the International Exhibitions held in Liège and Milan. At these events, visitors from all over Europe could see the real progress Bulgaria had made in different areas of its national economy, such as agriculture, crafts, and industry. These exhibitions allowed Bulgaria to present itself not only as a country recovering from centuries of hardship but also as a nation eager to contribute to global progress.

Purpose of This Work

The present volume was prepared by its authors to give readers a clearer picture of Bulgaria. It is meant to supplement the knowledge of those who visit the Bulgarian Section of the Balkan Exhibition currently held in London. However, the book is not only useful for visitors. It can also be read with interest and profit by anyone who wishes to learn more about the country, its history, geography, and people Turkey Sightseeing.

The Country and the People

The Rocks of Belogradchik

Among Bulgaria’s most remarkable natural sights are the Rocks of Belogradchik. These massive stone formations are unique in shape and beauty. They rise dramatically above the surrounding land, inspiring legends and attracting the admiration of travelers. Today, they are considered one of Bulgaria’s greatest natural wonders.

Geography of Bulgaria

Mountains

From a geographical perspective, Bulgaria enjoys a fortunate combination of mountain ranges and fertile plains. High mountains form protective chains, while broad valleys stretch across the land. Many mountain peaks rise to more than 2,000 meters above sea level, creating a striking contrast with the valleys, which lie at an average height of 200 meters.

This landscape gives Bulgaria both natural beauty and economic advantages. The mountains provide forests, pastureland, and natural resources, while the plains are ideal for farming. This balance between mountains and fertile valleys has shaped not only the country’s physical character but also the lives of its people.

Bulgaria is a young but determined nation. Through participation in international exhibitions, the development of its economy, and the study of its geography and people, it has shown Europe that it is ready to grow and prosper. The Principality continues to build its identity, rooted in its natural beauty and strengthened by its desire to join the modern world.