Sofia the Capital of Bulgaria

Sofia, the capital and commercial center of Bulgaria, is located in the southwestern part of the country. It sits on a high plain, at the foot of Mount Vitosh, a beautiful peak that rises to 7,800 feet. The top of the mountain is often covered with clouds, and snow can be found in its crevices throughout the year. These weather effects, along with the changing seasons, make the mountain very picturesque. In autumn, the forests surrounding the mountain are covered in scarlet and yellow leaves, which reach all the way up to the snowline, creating a stunning contrast.

The base of the mountain is only a short distance from the city, making it a popular destination for excursions. This is one of the few recreational activities available to visitors during the warmer months, as Sofia offers limited entertainment. There are no theaters, only one small vaudeville show, and concerts are rare, with military bands occasionally performing at the palace. Social entertainment is also limited. Foreign visitors often find their enjoyment in activities such as driving, riding, picnicking, and playing tennis. Golf has not been introduced to Sofia, as the local population does not show much interest in the sport. The foreign community in Sofia is small and mostly made up of diplomats from various European countries. There are also a few Austrians and Germans involved in business, several Belgian engineers who manage the electric light and streetcar services, and a handful of Englishmen and Americans, mostly working as missionary teachers Private Tour Ephesus.

Development and Stagnation in Sofia

Sofia covers a large area, and the city seems to have been in the middle of a building boom that was suddenly stopped. This is true because Prince Alexander, the previous ruler, was a strong supporter of development. Under his rule, Bulgaria made great progress, and Sofia began to grow rapidly. After his abdication, Stambouloff, the prime minister known as the Bulgarian Bismarck, continued his work and carried out many of the plans started by Alexander. However, after Stambouloff was no longer prime minister, little progress has been made in the development of the city or country.

This stagnation is believed to be caused by a lack of confidence in the current government. Prince Ferdinand, who is the current ruler, seems to be more interested in other matters and does not show much interest in improving Sofia’s appearance or infrastructure. As a result, there is little encouragement for investment in public works, and the city’s growth has slowed down significantly.

Agriculture and Economy of Bulgaria

Almost 47% of Bulgaria’s land is used for pasture. The country raises a variety of livestock, including sheep, goats, cattle, horses, and pigs. Among these, wool is the most valuable product, and it is primarily exported to Austria and Germany. Another significant source of income is the export of hides and skins. Each year, Bulgaria ships over five million sheep pelts to international markets.

The main agricultural product in Bulgaria is wheat, which is exported mainly to Germany and Turkey. Additionally, Bulgaria has a very profitable industry that involves the distillation of attar of roses, a highly valued oil. This industry is especially important in the provinces along the Black Sea, and Bulgaria is famous for producing some of the best rose oil in the world Private Tour Ephesus.

The Bulgarian Language

The Bulgarian language is unique and is a type of Slavonic language. It shares some similarities with Russian, but it is not the same. It can be compared to how Scotch is related to English. Although Bulgarian includes Greek letters in its alphabet and has some Greek words in its vocabulary, it is fundamentally a Slavonic language.

A Bulgarian and a Greek would not understand each other because their languages are completely different. Similarly, a Russian peasant would not be able to easily communicate with a Bulgarian peasant due to the difference in local dialects. However, educated Russians and Bulgarians can understand each other even when speaking in their own languages.

In terms of writing, Russians can read Bulgarian newspapers quite easily. Linguists believe that the Bulgarian language is very similar to the ancient Slavonic language. Interestingly, many Bulgarian words can be traced back to the ancient Thracian and Illyrian languages, showing the historical depth of the Bulgarian culture.

The Origins of the Bulgarians

The origin of the Bulgarian people is somewhat mysterious. There is no clear answer to where they came from. Some experts believe they might have been Finns, while others think they were Tartars. However, the strongest evidence suggests that their ancestors lived along the Volga River.

The history of the Bulgarians is not well-documented, which is unusual for such a strong and intelligent group of people. The Bulgarians lost their original language but kept their name. On the other hand, the Slavs they conquered lost their name but kept their language. This is an interesting and unique part of Bulgaria’s history.

Geography of Bulgaria

Bulgaria is located in Southeastern Europe. Its eastern border is formed by the Black Sea, to the west it borders the Kingdom of Serbia, and to the south, the Rhodope Mountains separate it from the Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia (also called Macedonia). The Balkan Mountains run across the country, dividing it into two regions. These mountains are similar to the Allegheny Mountains in Pennsylvania, USA.

Topography and Landscape

In some parts of Bulgaria, you’ll find beautiful, rolling landscapes. Between the mountain ranges, there are elevated plateaus, which range from 1,200 to 2,000 feet above sea level. These plateaus are irrigated and drained by several important rivers. One of the most interesting rivers is the Jantra River, which winds its way through high limestone gorges, creating a picturesque landscape Private Tour Ephesus.

Bulgaria’s geography is both varied and beautiful, offering a mix of mountains, plains, and rivers that give the country a unique and attractive topography.

Major Towns and Cities

Although Bulgaria does not have any large cities, there are several important towns that each have their own characteristics. Some of the main towns are:

Sofia, Rustchuk, Tirnova, Shumla, Plevna, Razgrad, Orehovo, Philippopolis, Varna, Orehovitsa, Slivno, Tatar Pazarjik, Vidin

These towns have a mix of historical importance, cultural significance, and local charm. They are home to many of Bulgaria’s population, which, for the most part, live in smaller rural areas.

Population and Economy

Most of Bulgaria’s population lives in rural areas. Around three-fourths of Bulgarians work in agriculture and pastoral activities. Most people are small farmers, with farms ranging from one to six acres. They also have large flocks of sheep, goats, or cattle that graze freely on common lands.

The land ownership system in Bulgaria is unique. The state officially owns all the land, and the people are considered tenants with perpetual leases. These leases are passed down from generation to generation. As payment for the land, the tenants give one-tenth of their products to the state, usually in kind, rather than paying rent or taxes.

In addition to agricultural land, the pastureland is free and is shared by those who own flocks or herds. People do not need official titles for this land; they hold the land based on traditional, unwritten agreements. Similarly, forests were traditionally free to use. Anyone could cut timber for personal use without paying, but the government supervised this to prevent large-scale commercial deforestation.

The Orient Express

A Disappointing Experience

The Orient Express is the famous railway train that runs through Europe, traveling from Calais and Ostend to Constantinople three times a week. While it is widely celebrated, it can be a disappointment when compared to American standards. The journey between Vienna and Sofia is about the same distance as between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, but it takes twice as long to complete the trip. Moreover, the fare is about four times higher than what you would pay in America for a similar distance.

The High Cost and Small Spaces

The extra fare or supplement, as it is called, for riding the Orient Express between Vienna and Sofia is 44 francs, or approximately $8.40. This is almost the full fare between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. For that price, you get a tiny space in a sleeping compartment, not a comfortable Pullman sleeper. The bed is reasonably comfortable, but the space is so narrow that it’s hardly safe to turn over in your sleep. The only way to get fresh air is by opening a window directly above your head, which doesn’t feel very secure.

In contrast, regular trains are just two hours slower than the Orient Express, but they are much cheaper. These trains run every day, and the quality of service is very similar, but the fare is only half the price of the Orient Express.

Bulgaria’s Railroads and Travel Time

Bulgaria has several railroads that connect the country to places like the Black Sea, Bucharest, and Salonika on the Mediterranean. There is also a major trunk line that connects to Constantinople. These railroads are owned by the government and are well-managed, although the trains are very slow. The Orient Express can sometimes reach a speed of 20 miles per hour, but on average, it only travels at 18 miles per hour, which is considered impressive in Bulgaria.

The entire Bulgarian railway system has a total length of 909 miles, with 130 miles of new track currently being built. The country also has an extensive telephone and telegraph network, which is a big improvement over some other countries, including Germany. The telephone service in Germany is so bad that many foreigners avoid using it if possible Private Tour Ephesus.

A Joke with a German Professor

One evening, I jokingly suggested that German words might be too big for the telephone lines, causing problems with the transmission. A professor at the University of Berlin took me seriously and, instead of laughing, he punished me by keeping me in the corner for half an hour while he explained why my suggestion was absurd. Moral of the story: Never joke with German professors.

Tirnova

The Ancient Capital of Bulgaria

Tirnova, the ancient capital of Bulgaria, is a beautiful city located on the rocky banks of a fast-flowing river. The city’s streets wind up and down the hills, with houses perched on top of the rocks. Long ago, clever warriors used the limestone cliffs that surround the city as natural fortifications, adding some artificial elements to make them even stronger. These cliffs rise as high as 700 or 800 feet. The city is full of colorful houses, separated by lush gardens and the thick foliage of ancient trees.

The Architecture of Tirnova

Tirnova’s architecture is a unique mix of Eastern and Western influences. In the city, you can see the domes of Greek churches, the minarets of mosques, clock towers, steeples, and modern buildings with French roofs. This variety of styles creates a curious architectural blend, showing the city’s rich and diverse history. Nature itself seems to have made it difficult for a city to be built here, making the city even more special.

The Natural Bridge of Tirnova

In the center of the town, on the longest street, there is a natural stone bridge that spans a deep chasm, through which the Jantra River flows. Although not as wide or high as the famous Natural Bridge of Virginia, it is still a remarkable sight. Because the bridge is located in the heart of the city, it draws even more attention. Some historians believe that both the causeway and the chasm were carved out by human hands long ago, as a way to protect the citadel on the other side. If this is true, it shows how clever and resourceful people were before the days of gunpowder and heavy artillery. This made the city nearly impossible to attack in earlier times.

Historical Significance of Tirnova

Tirnova’s ancient history can be surprising and is sometimes difficult to believe. The city’s buildings and landscapes are linked to some of the most romantic moments in human history. One significant location in the city is a tower in a beautiful castle, where Baldwin, a Frankish crusader, was held as a prisoner. Baldwin had been defeated by the Bulgarian army under Czar Kalojan at Adrianople, and after his defeat, he was brought to Tirnova, where he spent many years in prison. It is believed that Baldwin was buried alive in this tower.

The tower is now called “Baldwin’s Tower.” Although it has been partly ruined over the years, enough of it remains to give visitors an idea of what it originally looked like. From the tower, you can see one of the most breathtaking views in the world Private Tour Guide Ephesus.

The Bandits and St. Ryle Monastery

It would not be unusual for the bandits who captured Miss Stone to take her to the St. Ryle Monastery if they happened to be in the area. If the bandits needed to stay for a longer time, the monastery could have provided shelter. Based on the bandits’ known habits, the government ordered a search of the monastery. The monastery has seen many attacks throughout its history, and it has been a place of suffering as well as devotion during various periods in Bulgarian history Private Tour Guide Ephesus.

Historical Significance of St. Ryle Monastery

The frescoes on the walls of the monastery show the fanaticism of the Muslim invaders. They have left their mark on the paintings that depict Christian saints and legends by making cuts with their scimiters and punches with their yataghans (a type of sword). The cells in the monastery are small, damp, and lack any modern comforts, but the monks seem content, and it appears they haven’t completely given up on worldly pleasures.

St. John of Ryle and St. Methodius

St. John of Ryle lived in the 10th century and died in the year 976. He was an important figure in Bulgarian Christianity. St. Methodius, who helped introduce Christianity to Bulgaria, lived from 852 to 888. The monastery itself was built in the 11th century. At that time, Bulgaria was a powerful kingdom, and its wealth and royal court were admired around the world.

The Glory of Old Bulgaria

In the past, the palaces of the Bulgarian czars in Tirnova, the ancient capital of Bulgaria, were grand and showed signs of great wealth. The ruins of these palaces still exist today and are a reminder of their original splendor. The walls of the palaces were decorated with gold and had mosaics made of gilded glass. The pillars were made of polished marble, and the design used a lot of bronze for decoration.

Life of the Bulgarian Czars

Old records describe the life of a Bulgarian czar who sat on a throne made of ivory and decorated with gold, silver, and precious stones. His audience chamber was made of marble, and his robe was decorated with pearls. His girdle was covered in diamonds, and his armor made a sound from the gold coins hanging around his neck and shoulders. The czar also wore bracelets, anklets, and collars decorated with expensive jewels. His scepter was set with rubies, diamonds, and sapphires. These kinds of objects can now be seen as relics in the Kremlin in Moscow, Russia.

The Patron Saint of Bulgaria

St. John of Ryle

The patron saint of Bulgaria is St. John of Ryle. Although Christianity was first brought to the country by St. Methodius, it is St. John of Ryle who is honored as the patron saint. John of Ryle was originally a shepherd who later became a monk and lived a life of asceticism (a life of simplicity and self-discipline). For twenty years, he lived in the hollow of an oak tree in the mountains that separate Bulgaria and Macedonia. These mountains are now named after him.

The Ryle Monastery

After spending years living in the oak tree, John of Ryle moved to a rocky area that was very hard to reach. It was here that a monastery was built in his honor, now known as the Ryle Monastery. The monastery is a beautiful, medieval building and is one of the most picturesque places in Bulgaria. It is located in a beautiful mountain area, two days’ journey south of Sofia, Bulgaria’s capital. The monastery is often visited by tourists, who are warmly welcomed by the monks who live there Private Tour Guide Ephesus.

Recent Controversies Surrounding the Monastery

The monastery has gained recent attention due to an incident involving Miss Stone, a kidnapped American missionary. It was reported that Miss Stone had been hidden within the walls of the monastery, and as a result, soldiers under orders from the Bulgarian government searched the building thoroughly. This search was considered by many to be an invasion of the holy site. The monks were very upset by the intrusion, and the situation caused anger among the Greek Church members in Bulgaria. They blamed American missionaries for the incident and even threatened revenge.

Monks’ Hostility Towards Missionary Activity

The monks at St. Ryle Monastery have shown more hostility to missionary work than other clergy members in Bulgaria. The monks, unlike the more educated parish priests, tend to be less open-minded. Because they live a more isolated life and do not mix much with the outside world, they are often less tolerant of missionary activities.

Suspicions Regarding the Monks’ Involvement in the Kidnapping

It is not completely clear whether the monks of St. Ryle Monastery were involved in Miss Stone’s abduction, but there is no proof that they were. The suspicion that the monks might have had some role in the kidnapping is based on their past relationships with bandits. In earlier times, the remote location of the monastery made it an ideal meeting point for bandits who lived in the surrounding areas. These bandits, who were often peaceful farmers or shepherds, would sometimes resort to robbery when the opportunity arose. They are said to have given generously to the monks, offering game and other food supplies in exchange for the monks’ help.

The monks are believed to have hidden the bandits and their weapons when the police were pursuing them. They also allowed the bandits to meet in the monastery both before and after their raids.

Prince Ferdinand’s Time Away from the Capital

Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria does not spend much time in the capital, Sofia. There is not much there to interest him. The business of the state is well-managed by Mr. Bakhmeteff, the Russian representative, and the ministers. There are also few social or intellectual activities to engage his attention. The prince prefers to spend his time at Varna, where he has a country palace on the shores of the Black Sea.

His Hobby as a Naturalist

Prince Ferdinand is an accomplished naturalist. He enjoys hunting and classifying insects, plants, and other parts of nature. He has cataloged almost all the flora (plants) and fauna (animals) of Bulgaria. In Sofia, he has even established a zoological garden, which he funded himself.

His Physical Appearance and Personality

Although Prince Ferdinand is a grandson of Louis Philippe, he is said to resemble Louis Napoleon, the last emperor of France, especially in his disposition (character) and appearance. He has a distinctive nose, which has become a source of humor for caricaturists. His nose is so unique that it is easily recognizable, and the caricaturists often use it as a trademark to make clever drawings about him Private Tour Guide Ephesus.

Prince Ferdinand is a clever and accomplished gentleman, and a skilled politician. He is known for having a flexible conscience and can handle difficult situations better than most princes in Europe. He inherited the manners of his French ancestors, and like them, he is often seen as insincere. He is skilled at getting out of tricky situations in a way that makes him look good.

Differences from His Predecessor, Alexander of Battenberg

Prince Ferdinand is very different from his predecessor, Alexander of Battenberg. While Alexander was a Lutheran and supported Protestant missionary work, Ferdinand does not mind the missionary activity because the constitution of Bulgaria guarantees freedom of worship, and the police protect Protestants if there are any disturbances.

Marriage and Family Life

Prince Ferdinand had a short but happy marriage with Marie Louise. They were married for about six years before she passed away. During their marriage, they had four children:

Boris (born January 30, 1894), Cyril (born November 17, 1895), Eudoxie (born January 17, 1898), Madeja (born January 30, 1899)

Sadly, Queen Marie Louise died the day after giving birth to their youngest child, Madeja. The children are all intelligent and are being raised with careful attention, following European methods of education.

The Mysterious Publications

The police were unable to determine the source of the mysterious publications. However, many people believed that the letters had been given by Stavreff to his loyal friends to use for his protection in case of emergency. It seems that the letters served their purpose, as Stavreff has not been executed yet, although he remains in solitary confinement under a death sentence.

Ferdinand’s Controversial Decision

In 1900, Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria was involved in an action that caused strong reactions from Catholic countries and the rest of the world. This event followed his marriage to Marie Louise of Orleans. Ferdinand made a vow that his children would be baptized and educated in the Roman Catholic Church, which was a condition set by his wife’s family. Ferdinand himself is a Roman Catholic by birth and baptism. He has even built a chapel in his palace, has a Catholic chaplain, and attends mass every morning at 7 a.m. He also makes it a point to attend mass during his yearly visits to an Austrian spa, showing his consistent commitment to his faith Private Tour Guide Ephesus.

The Changing of Faith for His Son

However, shortly after the death of his wife, Marie Louise, in 1899, Ferdinand made a surprising decision. He placed his eldest son, Crown Prince Boris, who was only five years old, under the care of a Russian priest from the Greek Church. The priest secretly baptized Boris and began educating him in the Greek Orthodox faith. This action was believed to have been suggested by Russia, but many people doubt that the Czar approved of it. In fact, leaders from several Catholic nations, including the Emperor of Austria, the King of Italy, and the German Emperor, publicly condemned Ferdinand’s decision.

The Other Children’s Education

While the Crown Prince was raised in the Greek Orthodox faith, the other children of Prince Ferdinand were brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, as initially promised by Ferdinand and his wife.

Introduction to Stepan Stambouloff

Stepan Stambouloff is widely considered one of the most capable and extraordinary figures to have ever emerged from the Balkan Peninsula. Despite his flaws, his love for his country and his patriotism were always unquestionable. His integrity stood out clearly, especially when compared to the inconsistent and cowardly politicians around him.

Early Life and Rise to Prominence

Stambouloff was born in Tirnovo, a small town, to a humble innkeeper. He attended an ordinary country school and came to prominence during the revolution against Turkish rule, which took place before the Russo-Turkish war. Although he was still very young, Stambouloff became one of the most important and influential Bulgarian patriots in the struggle for independence Ephesus Daily Tour.

Rapid Political Career

At a time when the new constitution required a man to be at least 30 years old to be eligible to serve in the Sobranje (Bulgarian parliament), Stambouloff became an active member before he was 23. By the age of 25, he was serving as president of the Sobranje, and by 33, he became prime minister of Bulgaria.

Stambouloff was known for his bravery, determination, and strong leadership. He had a natural ability to lead people and influence everyone he came in contact with. It was often said that even his enemies could not help but admire him while they were in his presence.

Leadership and Influence

Stambouloff was an exceptional politician, with a talent for gaining absolute control over the people and the government. In a country like Bulgaria, which had little experience in self-governance, he became a dominant figure. The Sobranje was almost entirely united in supporting him.

Despite his incredible skill and leadership, Stambouloff was not without his controversial methods. He firmly believed that the end justified the means and often used harsh and questionable tactics to achieve his goals. He could be arbitrary, cruel, and vindictive at times, and his manners often reflected the rough nature of the Bulgarian mountaineers from whom he came.

Character and Legacy

Stambouloff lacked polish and was often indifferent to suffering. However, throughout his life, he remained devoted to the welfare of Bulgaria and its people. He never sought personal gain, and his integrity was evident in his actions. His life was a reflection of his unselfishness, as he focused entirely on improving the lives of his fellow countrymen.

Although he was in complete control of Bulgaria’s finances for seven years, and held the power to demand almost any reward for his service, Stambouloff died poorer than when he was born. His commitment to his country and people was absolute, and despite his position of power, he never accumulated wealth for himself.

Stepan Stambouloff’s career is a fascinating example of a man who sacrificed his own personal comfort for the betterment of his country. While his methods were sometimes harsh and controversial, his dedication to Bulgaria was unquestionable. His legacy remains one of the most remarkable in the history of the Balkans.

Prince Alexander's Return to Bulgaria

After his forced abdication, Prince Alexander returned to Sofia, where he was welcomed with great enthusiasm by the Bulgarian people. They celebrated his return in triumph. However, staying true to his honest nature, Prince Alexander immediately sent a telegram to Czar Alexander III of Russia, saying:

“I received my crown from Russia. I am ready to return it to the hands of her sovereign whenever it is demanded.”

The Czar’s response was swift and predictable. He expressed his disapproval of Prince Alexander’s return to Bulgaria and criticized his administration. Despite the support of Stambouloff and other Bulgarian leaders, who begged Prince Alexander to stay and challenge Russia, Alexander decided that it was best for him to step down to avoid a potential war with Russia Ephesus Sightseeing.

Prince Alexander’s Decision to Abdicate

In his final act as ruler of Bulgaria, Prince Alexander demanded a promise from the Czar. He asked that Russia would allow the Bulgarian people to manage their own affairs without interference. Sadly, this promise was broken within thirty days, and Russia continued to interfere in Bulgarian politics.

After appointing a regency, Prince Alexander officially abdicated the throne. Despite his departure, he left Bulgaria with the love and respect of the people. He went into retirement in Austria, taking the title of Count Hartenau, where he remained until his death in 1893.

The Search for a New King

Once Prince Alexander abdicated, Bulgaria needed a new king. The first choice was Prince Waldemar of Denmark, a member of the royal family and the brother of several European monarchs, including the Queen of Great Britain. However, Prince Waldemar refused the offer, fearing that accepting the throne would upset his brother-in-law, Czar Alexander III, who had forced Alexander to give up his crown.

To find a new ruler, a committee was sent to various European capitals, looking for a suitable king. During this time, Stambouloff, the president of Bulgaria’s parliament, took control of the country as regent. His policies were openly anti-Russian, and he refused to follow any orders from Russia.

Stambouloff’s Leadership and Russian Defeat

Despite Russian efforts to regain control, including sending two commissioners to Bulgaria and sending Russian warships to the port of Varna, Stambouloff stood firm. He treated the Russian officials respectfully but made it clear that Bulgaria would not follow their demands.

Eventually, the Russians became frustrated and withdrew all their officials, including consuls and military personnel, leaving Bulgaria to govern itself. It is unclear what Czar Alexander III had hoped would happen. He might have expected chaos in Bulgaria, which could give him an excuse to send in the Russian army. However, this did not happen. Instead, Bulgaria remained peaceful and stable.

Stambouloff’s Successful Leadership

Stambouloff proved to be an effective leader. He ruled the country well and followed many of the policies that had been set by the deposed Prince Alexander. His anti-Russian stance continued, but he managed to keep Bulgaria peaceful and prosperous during a time of great political uncertainty.

The Ultimatum Death or Abdication

Prince Alexander was informed by the Russian officers that he had two choices: he could either abandon the throne or face death. The situation was tense and dangerous. One of the Russian officers took a blank page from the visitors’ book on the table and tried to write an abdication document. However, the officer was drunk, and he could not write properly. A young cadet from the military academy took the pen and, under the officer’s guidance, wrote a few incoherent words.

Alexander’s Calm Reaction

Despite having five revolvers pointed at his head, Prince Alexander remained calm and composed. He read the document, and with a sarcastic remark, he accepted their demand. In German, he wrote the words:

“God protect Bulgaria. Alexander.”

After signing the document, he was quickly forced into a carriage and escorted by Russian officers and military cadets. They drove him at a fast speed, covering seventeen miles to a monastery, where they gave him a short rest. After changing horses, they rushed him over the Balkan Mountains toward the Danube River and placed him aboard a yacht.

The Provisional Government and Stambouloff’s Leadership

In Sofia, the conspirators, with the help of the Metropolitan (the archbishop of the Greek Church), declared a provisional government. However, Stambouloff, the young president of the Bulgarian parliament, was quick to act. He called the conspirators outlaws and appealed to the Bulgarian people to defend the throne against the Russian plot. Stambouloff succeeded in convincing the parliament to make him regent until Prince Alexander could be restored to power.

The Search for Prince Alexander

It took several days before Prince Alexander could be found. In the meantime, he was kept hidden on the yacht on the Danube River, far away from the political turmoil in Sofia. As news of the abduction and the conspiracy spread across Europe, public outrage grew, and the Russians were pressured by public sentiment to return Prince Alexander Ephesus Sightseeing.

The Aftermath and Lack of Accountability

Once Prince Alexander was restored, the Russian Czar tried to distance himself from the events, attempting to clear his name from any wrongdoing. However, despite the scale of the conspiracy, no Russian official involved in the plot was punished or even criticized for their role in the forced abdication. This lack of accountability left many in Europe deeply dissatisfied with the way the crisis was handled.

The events surrounding Prince Alexander’s forced abdication and the subsequent struggle for Bulgaria’s independence are some of the most dramatic and shameful in modern European political history. The betrayal by the Russian officials and the efforts of Stambouloff to protect the throne highlight the complex and often dangerous political environment in which Bulgaria found itself at the time. Despite the challenges, Prince Alexander’s legacy as a courageous leader who cared deeply for Bulgaria remained intact.

Conflict with Alexander III of Russia

Alexander III of Russia never liked his cousin, Prince Alexander of Battenberg, for reasons that remain unclear. As soon as Alexander III became Czar, he called Prince Alexander to account for his anti-Russian policies in Bulgaria. The prince tried to explain his actions, but his explanation did not satisfy the Czar.

Prince Alexander explained that he was trying to run Bulgaria’s affairs in the best interests of the people, without considering foreign pressure. However, his liberal policies were seen as too independent and too free for the Czar. Prince Alexander was a Protestant, and his efforts to encourage education were not welcomed by the clergy of the Greek Orthodox Church, who were powerful in the region. He also granted freedom to the press, which allowed democratic ideas to spread. This, in turn, strengthened the Liberal Party in Bulgaria, which was anti-Russian and even wanted a republic instead of a monarchy Ephesus Sightseeing.

Growing Tension and Loss of Power

As Prince Alexander’s policies clashed with Russian interests, he found himself in an increasingly difficult situation. He had hoped to govern independently, but he soon realized that the Russian officials in his government were taking their orders from St. Petersburg, not from him. This made it clear that he no longer had full control over his own country.

Determined to assert his independence, Prince Alexander tried to remove the Russian officials and replace them with native Liberals who would support his vision for Bulgaria. However, the Russians reacted with extreme hostility.

A Conspiracy Against the Prince

The Russian response to Prince Alexander’s attempt to assert control was one of the most shocking and shameful conspiracies in modern political history. While such events may have occurred in the Middle Ages, during the time of robber barons and political schemers, what happened in 1886 was nothing less than a political scandal that shocked Europe.

The Assassination Attempt

At two o’clock in the morning on August 21, 1886, Prince Alexander was suddenly awoken by his valet, who handed him a revolver and urgently told him to escape through a window. The situation was dire, and it was clear that the prince was in danger. However, Prince Alexander was not the kind of man to run away from danger. Instead of fleeing, he chose to face the threat head-on.

After getting dressed quickly, the prince walked into an ante-room of his residence, where he was confronted by a group of Russian officers. Some of these officers had recently been dismissed by him, while others were still in government positions. It was clear that they were there to force him out of power and take control of his position.

This midnight conspiracy marked a turning point in Prince Alexander’s rule. It was a dramatic event that showcased the fierce political struggles surrounding Bulgaria at the time. Despite his efforts to remain independent and govern for the good of the Bulgarian people, Prince Alexander was ultimately overthrown by the influence and manipulation of Russian power.

The Difficult Task of Rebuilding Bulgaria

Prince Alexander of Battenberg faced an incredibly difficult challenge when he took the throne of Bulgaria. His mission was to rebuild the country, which was in chaos after being under Ottoman rule for centuries. This task was harder than any other attempted by leaders of his time. Bulgaria was made up of many different groups and had little experience with self-government. Prince Alexander had very little help but faced a lot of interference from foreign powers who had placed him in charge. Despite all these challenges, he remains one of the most romantic and admired figures in modern European history.

Prince Alexander’s Qualities

Prince Alexander was loved by the Bulgarian people for his kind nature, personal courage, and willingness to help. He was known for being open, friendly, and always cheerful, which made him popular among the common people. He fought bravely on the battlefield and always tried his best to make Bulgaria a better place. He truly cared for the country and its people, and everyone could see this. His honesty and determination won the respect of many, and he became a symbol of hope for Bulgaria. The people still call him their “Liberator” to this day.

Challenges and Enemies

However, these same qualities of honesty and openness also created enemies for Prince Alexander. He was surrounded by many corrupt officials and selfish adventurers who only cared about their own power and money. Alexander was quick to dismiss them when he discovered their wrongdoings, but he struggled to recognize their dishonesty at first. Because of his genuine nature, he was often tricked by insincere people who took advantage of his trust Ephesus Sightseeing.

The Influence of Russia

Prince Alexander might have been able to overcome the challenges he faced if Alexander II of Russia had lived longer. The Russian emperor had a great deal of trust and love for his nephew. He supported Prince Alexander and believed he could lead Bulgaria successfully. Alexander II helped the young prince and even defended him against Russian politicians who wanted to control Bulgaria’s government. The Russian emperor saw in his nephew a leader who could bring stability and progress to Bulgaria.

Prince Alexander’s Legacy

Unfortunately, Alexander II’s death in 1881 was a huge loss for Bulgaria. Without his support, Prince Alexander was left vulnerable to the political conspiracies that surrounded him. Despite his efforts, his time on the throne was short-lived. Still, the people of Bulgaria remembered him as a brave and selfless leader who did his best to free and rebuild their country. His legacy as the “Liberator” of Bulgaria remains in their hearts, and he is still honored as a hero in Bulgarian history.

Bulgaria’s Sudden Change to Independence

Bulgaria was suddenly transformed into an independent country without any preparation or experience. The government was mostly controlled by foreigners, who not only jealous of each other but also hostile towards one another. This created a difficult and unstable political situation for the new nation.

The Challenges Faced by Prince Alexander

Prince Alexander faced many difficulties during his reign. People said that he lacked good judgment and discretion. They believed he talked too much, argued with his advisers, and didn’t understand politics well. As a result, he was not seen as a skilled diplomat or leader. He was also considered too lenient and too liberal to govern a country that had always been ruled by a despot (a cruel and absolute ruler).

These criticisms may be true to some extent. If Alexander had had an experienced and wise advisor, his reign might have been more successful. However, despite his weaknesses, Bulgaria made extraordinary progress under his rule. If he had been allowed to stay on the throne, the country might have advanced significantly by now.

Bulgaria in Chaos Before Prince Alexander’s Arrival

When Prince Alexander first arrived in Sofia, Bulgaria was in complete chaos. The situation was much worse than what Cuba experienced after the Spanish-American War. The Bulgarian people had endured terrible suffering, which shocked the civilized world. They were oppressed by acts of cruelty that were hard to even describe.

The Ottoman rulers were harsh and punished the people with violence. The number of victims is not clear, but reports from foreign diplomats at the time tell a tragic story. The British minister, who investigated the situation, reported that at least 12,000 people were massacred in just one month by the Turks. Eugene Schuyler, the American consul in Constantinople, believed that 15,000 people had died during that same period.

A Country Devastated by War

For years, Bulgaria had been in a constant state of revolution and had been the battlefield of two powerful armies. These armies destroyed farms, burned down cities, and left a large part of the country in ruins. Many Bulgarians had to flee to the mountains to escape the destruction. After the war, most of the population was too poor and disheartened to rebuild their homes and communities Ephesus Sightseeing.

A Nation in Need of Strong Leadership

In the midst of this devastation, Bulgaria needed strong leadership. Although Prince Alexander was not perfect, his efforts to lead and improve the country were noteworthy. Under his reign, Bulgaria showed real progress, despite the many challenges it faced. Unfortunately, due to political turmoil and foreign interference, Bulgaria did not have the chance to fully recover and grow into a strong nation as it might have under more stable circumstances.

A Warm Welcome for Prince Alexander

The people of Bulgaria welcomed Prince Alexander of Battenberg warmly when he arrived to take the throne. He immediately began a series of reforms, which were said to have been encouraged by Prince Bismarck of Germany. Bismarck had taken a special interest in the young prince’s career and believed he could bring stability to the newly formed Bulgarian state.

Prince Alexander soon proved to be a good and caring leader. He was unselfish, kind, patriotic, and eager to improve the lives of his people. He genuinely wanted to help Bulgaria grow into a strong and modern country. However, his honesty and openness made it difficult for him to deal with the political conspiracies and manipulative figures that surrounded him.

Difficulties in Governing a New Nation

Bulgaria had been ruled by the Ottoman Empire for five centuries, and many of its people were not prepared for self-government. Like other nations recently freed from long oppression, they lacked experience in democracy and political organization. Bismarck once said that the Bulgarians had been “put into the saddle before they learned to ride,” meaning they were given power before knowing how to use it wisely.

Bulgaria’s situation was made worse by the jealousy of neighboring countries—Germany, Austria, Russia, Turkey, and Greece. These nations often treated Bulgaria as a pawn in their political games, trying to influence or control its affairs to serve their own interests.

Russian Influence and Interference

Russia, in particular, was deeply disappointed that it had not been allowed to fully benefit from its victory in the Russo-Turkish War. Feeling cheated by the other Great Powers, Russia began using secret plots and political manipulation to regain control over Bulgaria. Russian agents and officials worked behind the scenes to sway public opinion and influence elections.

Because Bulgaria lacked enough educated citizens, especially for high-ranking jobs in the government and military, foreigners were brought in to fill key positions. Many of these roles went to Russians, who used their influence to shape Bulgarian politics to Moscow’s advantage Local Ephesus Tour Guides.

A Flawed Political System

The Bulgarian parliament, called the Sobranje, was made up of one elected chamber. All citizens who could read and write had the right to vote. However, the real power did not lie with the Sobranje. The ministers of the government were not controlled by parliament, and their decisions could not be overturned by votes.

Instead, the ministers were only accountable to the ruling prince. He also had the full authority to appoint and remove all government and military officials. The only way the Sobranje could challenge the prince’s decisions was by refusing to approve government spending. But if a conflict or deadlock occurred between the parliament and the prince, there was no higher authority to settle the dispute.

Although Prince Alexander began his rule with good intentions and popular support, the challenges he faced—inexperience among the people, foreign interference, and a flawed political structure—made effective leadership very difficult. These early struggles shaped the complex and often troubled development of modern Bulgarian governance.

Bulgaria Gains Limited Independence

After the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), the Great Powers of Europe met in Berlin to decide the future of the Balkan countries. At the Congress of Berlin, they told the people of Bulgaria that they could manage their own government and choose their own king. However, this independence came with conditions.

Although Bulgaria was now mostly self-governing, it still had to pay an annual tribute to the Ottoman Sultan, instead of the taxes the Sultan used to collect directly. The amount of this payment was never clearly decided, and the financial relationship between the two nations became confusing and disorganized. To this day, it remains unclear, and an international commission may be needed in the future to settle the issue Local Ephesus Tour Guides.

Unclear Financial Obligations

Bulgaria was also made responsible for a part of the Turkish national debt, but just like the tribute payments, the exact share Bulgaria had to pay was never determined properly. This added more confusion to the already complicated financial relationship between the two countries.

Russian Supervision and Election Issues

Once the Great Powers had set the conditions, elections were organized in Bulgaria. These elections were supervised by Russian troops, who were present at voting stations. Unfortunately, their presence was not neutral. The Russian soldiers tried to influence voters through intimidation, persuasion, and empty promises. Their actions led to a vote that was not entirely free or fair.

A Strange and Confusing Constitution

At the same time, a new constitution was written by a clever Russian politician. The constitution was approved by the people, but most Bulgarians did not understand it. In fact, many experts believe that even today, no one fully understands the document. It was written in a vague and ambiguous way, possibly on purpose, to allow for flexibility and manipulation by those in power.

Prince Alexander of Battenberg Becomes Ruler

After much discussion and correspondence, the Bulgarian National Assembly finally selected Prince Alexander of Battenberg as their ruler. He was only 24 years old at the time and was serving as a lieutenant in the German army, under his great-uncle, Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany.

Prince Alexander had family ties to many of Europe’s royal houses. He was the nephew of the Russian Czar, and his brother, Prince Henry, was married to Queen Victoria’s daughter, Beatrice. Because of these family connections, many believed Alexander would be a neutral and fair ruler.

He was also well-liked by many. Known for his friendly personality, bravery, and honesty, Prince Alexander won the respect of both his people and European leaders.

The Sacrifice at Plevna and Shipka Pass

The blood shed for Bulgaria during the siege of Plevna and the defense of Shipka Pass was not wasted. These battles were some of the most important in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, where Russian and allied forces fought to free Bulgaria from Ottoman rule.

As a result of victory, and in return for agreeing to peace, Russia demanded that Bulgaria and Macedonia (then known as Rumelia) be given independence from the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of San Stefano, signed in early 1878, reflected this demand. Turkey agreed, and for a brief moment, it seemed like Bulgaria and Macedonia would be free.

The Interference of European Powers

Unfortunately, the situation changed quickly. The other major powers of Europe, especially Britain and Austria-Hungary, were jealous of Russian influence in the Balkans. They feared that a large, Russian-backed Bulgaria could shift the balance of power in the region.

So, they intervened and called a new meeting in Berlin later in 1878. At the Congress of Berlin, the powers rewrote the terms of the San Stefano treaty. The result was the creation of a smaller Bulgaria, with reduced borders like those we see on modern maps.

What Happened to Macedonia (Rumelia)?

Macedonia was left out of the new Bulgaria and was instead placed back under the control of the Sultan of Turkey, though it was decided that it would be ruled by a Christian governor-general. In theory, this governor would act fairly, and religious freedom would be guaranteed for all people, regardless of faith.

It was also promised that the people in the region could elect their own local leaders, make their own local laws, and be protected in terms of taxation, personal rights, and property. These promises were written clearly in the treaty and were meant to bring peace, justice, and progress to the region Local Ephesus Tour Guides.

Broken Promises and False Hopes

However, these hopes were never fulfilled. Many people, even at the time, doubted the honesty of the Sultan. The European leaders in Berlin should have known that the Ottoman Empire had a long history of breaking promises. Still, they trusted the Sultan’s word, accepting his assurances of reform without real guarantees.

This naive trust has been called one of the most astonishing mistakes in modern political history. If the promises made in the Berlin Treaty had actually been kept, Rumelia (Macedonia) might have become a peaceful and prosperous region. Instead, it remained a place of oppression, unrest, and broken dreams.

Russian Influence and the Second Invasion of Bulgaria

In the twelfth century, Russia launched its second invasion of Bulgaria. This invasion was large and widespread, leading to the mixing of local people with the Slavs. As a result, the Slavic language and religion became dominant in Bulgaria. Since then, Russia has often used these shared cultural and religious ties as a reason to interfere in the affairs of Southeastern Europe.

Ottoman Rule Begins

In the fourteenth century, the Turks defeated the Russians and took control of Bulgaria. By 1389, the country had been fully conquered by the Ottoman Empire, and it remained under Turkish rule for almost 500 years, until the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

The Bulgarian Atrocities and International Outrage

The official reason given for the Russo-Turkish War was to protect the Christians of the Greek Orthodox Church, who were suffering from persecution and cruelty by Turkish officials. Although William Gladstone, the British politician, was not in power at the time, he played a huge role in gaining public support for the war.

Gladstone published a powerful pamphlet called “The Bulgarian Atrocities,” where he described, with great emotion, the sufferings of the Bulgarian people under Ottoman rule. His words shocked and moved people across Europe Local Ephesus Tour Guides.

Around the same time, Eugene Schuyler, who was the United States consul-general in Constantinople, wrote a detailed report full of facts about the situation. His report gave solid evidence that supported Gladstone’s message and helped to awaken sympathy and anger around the world.

Alexander II A Hero to Bulgarians

With public support rising, Alexander II of Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. While Russia may have had political goals—such as gaining control over Constantinople—many people believed the war was a just cause to protect fellow Orthodox Christians who spoke the same language and shared the same faith.

Alexander II is still loved and honored in Bulgaria. He was a kind ruler who freed 40 million serfs in Russia and was planning to give his people more freedom through a constitutional government before he was assassinated.

Honoring the Liberators of Bulgaria

In Bulgaria, many places are named after Alexander II. There is a monument in his honor, and the main public park in the capital, Sofia, also carries his name. His portrait is found everywhere—from peasant cottages to royal palaces.

You can buy postal cards with his image titled “Liberator of Bulgaria” at every stationery shop or newsstand. These cards are the most popular of all. The Bulgarian people’s gratitude toward him has lasted for over 25 years.

Another hero remembered is William Gladstone, who also has a main street in Sofia named after him. His portrait appears on postal cards as well. However, there seems to be no public recognition of Eugene Schuyler’s efforts, even though his report played a major role in helping Bulgaria.

Bulgaria Recent History and Politics

From Ancient Thrace to the Roman Empire

In ancient times, the area we now call Bulgaria was known as Thrace. This name was used during the time of Philip of Macedon, the famous military leader and father of Alexander the Great. Thrace was then inhabited by a wild and warlike people. Both Philip and Alexander eventually brought this region under their control and added it to their empire.

Later, during the early Christian era, Roman Emperor Vespasian conquered the region, turning it into a Roman province. It remained under Roman rule for several centuries.

The Arrival of the Bulgars

In the third century, waves of eastern tribes, often called barbarians, began moving through the Danube Valley. Among these groups were the Bulgars, a nomadic clan from Central Asia. They settled in the Balkan Mountains and eventually gave the country its modern name—Bulgaria Local Ephesus Tour Guides.

Over the following centuries, the Bulgars formed a strong and independent state. Their kingdom grew into the Bulgarian Empire, which reached its peak during the rule of Czar Simeon, who reigned from 893 to 927 A.D. However, by the eleventh century, Bulgaria fell under the control of the Byzantine Empire.

Russia’s Role in Bulgarian Affairs

Russia first became involved in Bulgarian history in 967 A.D. when a Russian fleet landed 10,000 soldiers at the mouth of the Danube River. These troops were led by Sviatoslav, a strong and fearless warrior. He lived a rough life—eating horse meat and sleeping on a bearskin.

Since that time, Russia has played an important role in Bulgarian politics. Because of their shared Slavic roots and common Orthodox Christian faith, Russia has long claimed the right to influence events in Bulgaria. Russia has also often supported Bulgarians in their struggles against Turkish (Ottoman) oppression.

European Politics and the Limits of Russian Power

Although Russia wants more control in the Balkan region, Austria and Germany do not allow Russia to take over the Balkan States or expand to the Mediterranean Sea. Still, no country has been able to stop Russia’s political influence in Bulgaria.

Why Bulgaria Still Relies on Russia

Today, Russia remains very influential in Bulgarian politics for several reasons. First, Bulgaria is not strong enough to completely resist Russian pressure. Second, the country sees Russia as its only powerful ally in times of crisis. The Bulgarian government knows that if problems arise, it is to Russia—the “Great White Bear”—that they must turn for help.

The Lost Treasure

The Cistern of the 1,001 Pillars

Tourists today can no longer visit one of Constantinople’s most fascinating historic sites: the famous “Cistern of the 1,001 Pillars.” This ancient structure was once a major attraction and a powerful reminder of the city’s Roman and Byzantine past.

The cistern was originally built during the reign of Emperor Constantine to store water for the city. It is a huge underground reservoir, measuring about 195 feet long, 167 feet wide, and 27 feet deep. The ceiling is supported by a dense forest of stone columns, which gave rise to the popular belief that there are 1,001 pillars, though the actual number is slightly different.

A Vital Water Supply for the Ancient City

In ancient times, the cistern could hold enough water to supply the entire population of Stamboul (the old part of Constantinople) for around ten days. It was a crucial part of the city’s water system.

However, by the year 1850, the cistern was no longer used to store water. By then, modern aqueducts had been built to carry fresh water to various parts of the city, replacing the need for underground cisterns.

From Water Storage to Storage Rooms

After the cisterns were drained, they were sometimes used by the Ottoman government as storage spaces for supplies. Over time, many of these cisterns were abandoned and forgotten. Some of them, including the Cistern of the 1,001 Pillars, were later used by Armenian manufacturers who made items like carpets and ropes. Since these businesses needed space more than light, the dark and large cisterns suited them well. The Armenian workers used these spaces without paying rent because the buildings were no longer in official use.

A Dark Chapter The Massacre of 1896

Tragically, in 1896, a Turkish mob entered the cistern during the massacres targeting Armenians in Constantinople. The attackers killed between 60 and 70 Armenian workers inside the cistern. Their bodies were never properly buried, and according to reports, they remain there to this day. Because of this dark and painful history, the cistern is now closed to visitors and is not considered a pleasant place to see Guided Tour Ephesus.

Children of the Victims A Carpet Factory Today

As a heartbreaking result of the 1896 massacre, around 2,000 children were left orphaned. Many of these children are now employed in a carpet factory located in the suburbs of Constantinople. This fact serves as a reminder of the human cost of past violence and the ongoing struggles of the survivors.

Yachts for Safety not Just Comfort

Although the steam yachts near the foreign embassies in Constantinople may look like luxury transport, they actually have a much more serious purpose. These yachts are emergency escape boats for diplomats in case of danger. This important reason is not often talked about, but it is known among those who live in the area.

The situation in Turkey at the time was similar to what happened in China during the Boxer Rebellion, when foreign diplomats in Peking (Beijing) were attacked by local mobs. In Turkey, there was a constant threat of violence from fanatical religious groups, especially mobs of angry Muslims who believed it was their duty to kill non-Muslims (Christians and others) Guided Tour Ephesus.

Constant Risk for Foreign Diplomats

If such a mob took control of Constantinople, it would not matter whether someone was English, Austrian, or Armenian—anyone who was not Muslim could be attacked. These mobs would not distinguish between foreigners and local minorities. Sadly, the Turkish police and officials were usually unable to control such outbreaks of violence. Because of this danger, embassies needed to be prepared at all times to evacuate quickly.

This is why a long line of steam yachts was always docked near the foreign district of the city. These boats were ready to take diplomats and their families away to safety if needed.

Gunboats as Extra Protection

In addition to the yachts, some countries—Germany, Russia, England, France, Austria, and Italy—also kept small warships or guard boats (gunboats) in the Bosphorus. These boats were there to protect citizens and diplomats in case of violence. The Turkish government did not normally allow large warships to pass through the Dardanelles, a narrow waterway, but these small boats were allowed by special agreements or treaties. Even the Turkish police admitted that the presence of these boats was necessary.

Foreign Nations Do Not Trust Turkish Mail

Another sign of low trust in the Turkish government was the fact that many European countries had their own post offices in Turkey. Nations like Britain, Germany, France, Austria, and Russia ran separate mail systems for their citizens living in Turkey.

This special arrangement was made with the permission of the Sultan and was part of international treaties. These foreign post offices were open to the public and could be used by anyone. Mail was sealed in bags and sent by railroad to the nearest city in the home country. For example:

British mail went to London, French mail went to Marseilles, Austrian mail went to Budapest, Russian mail went to Odessa

The mail bags were opened only upon arrival, and then the letters were handed over to the regular postal system of each country.

At these foreign post offices, regular stamps were sold, but they were marked with Turkish currency values. All of the foreign post offices followed this system.

Embassy Buildings in Constantinople

All the European powers, including smaller countries like Holland and Belgium, have impressive embassy buildings in Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). These buildings are not only elegant but also large and noticeable.

One of the most impressive is the German embassy, which is considered one of the finest buildings in the entire city. Only the palaces of the Sultan are larger or more majestic. The German embassy stands on a high, visible spot, and can be seen from many areas in the city.

The Russian embassy is also very large. It is surrounded by a high protective wall and includes its own hospital for the use of Russian staff and citizens. The British embassy is another fine example, built with care and elegance.

The American Minister’s Housing Struggles

Unlike the European countries, the United States does not own a proper embassy building in Constantinople. The American minister (ambassador) usually has to live in a hotel, because it is difficult—and sometimes even impossible—to find a suitable house to rent in the city.

At present, there is only one house available that might work. It belongs to an Italian nobleman who has gone back to Italy. The house is in a great location in one of the most convenient parts of the city. However, it has serious problems. The basement is always wet, and water seeps into the walls, making it an unhealthy and uncomfortable place to live. Because of this, it is unlikely that the American minister will rent it.

Summer Move to Therepia

Due to the extreme summer heat and pollution in Constantinople, most ambassadors and diplomats move to a cooler place during the hot months. The preferred location is Therepia, a small suburban town located a few miles up the Bosphorus.

On July 1st, all diplomatic staff and ambassadors leave the city and move to their summer legations in Therepia. They stay there until November 1st, when the weather becomes cooler and it’s safe to return to the city Guided Tour Ephesus.

Even while living in Therepia, the ambassadors and their secretaries often travel to the city during the day to attend meetings and conduct official business. Many governments provide their ambassadors with private yachts to travel easily between Therepia and Constantinople.

Lack of Support for the U.S. Minister

Unfortunately, the United States is the only major power that does not provide a yacht for its ambassador. During the summer, the U.S. minister is allowed to rent a small steam-powered boat, called a launch, to travel back and forth. But when the summer ends, this boat is returned to its owner, and the U.S. minister once again faces limited transportation options.

This lack of proper housing and transportation shows how under-supported the American diplomatic presence was in Constantinople compared to the well-established European embassies.

Religious Communities (Millets) in Turkey

In Turkey, everyone is expected to belong to a religious group, also called a millet. Each person must be registered under one of these communities, no matter how rich or poor they are. There are many millets in Turkey. Some of the main ones are:

Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Armenian, Jewish, Protestant, Bulgarian, Maronite, Nestorian, Greek Roman Catholic

Each millet has its own religious leaders. In theory, these leaders are responsible for their community’s religion, schools, hospitals, monasteries, and charitable services. They are also supposed to have some legal authority in matters related to their community.

Religious Freedom in Theory, But Not Always in Practice

In theory, every millet is allowed to practice its religion freely. Members also have the right to appeal to their religious leader for help if they are in trouble with the law. On paper, the leader of the millet is the official link between the Turkish government and the members of that community.

But in real life, these rights are often ignored. If someone is accused of a crime, the Turkish police often arrest them immediately. Many times, the person is thrown in jail without a fair trial, and they may not get any help from their millet leader. Most of the time, the only way out of prison is if their family pays money or a foreign diplomat steps in to protect them.

How Embassy Courts Work in Turkey

Foreign citizens in Turkey are usually tried in embassy courts that follow the laws of their home country, not Turkish law. These courts do not follow Turkish procedures. Everything is done just as it would be done back home Guided Tour Ephesus.

For example, in the United States embassy court, there are legal staff just like in the U.S., such as:

A clerk of court, A U.S. marshal, Judges and other legal officers, There is even a U.S. prison to hold people accused of breaking American laws while in Turkey.

Not All Countries Have the Same Level of Activity

The United States court in Turkey does not have much work to do because there are only about 200 Americans living there. Most of them are missionaries, and they rarely get involved in legal problems.

But the situation is different for other countries. The Russian, German, Austrian, and French embassies handle many more legal cases because they have more citizens living in Turkey.

Laws for Foreigners in Turkey

The Rule of Extra-Territoriality

In Turkey, a special legal system called extra-territoriality is used for foreign citizens. This means that people from other countries living in Turkey are not judged by Turkish law. Instead, they are judged by the laws of their own country. These foreigners are also tried in courts held by their own diplomats and consuls. It does not matter if the person who brings the complaint (the plaintiff) is Turkish or not. What matters is the nationality of the accused (defendant).

So, if a French citizen commits a crime in Turkey, such as theft or even murder, they are tried under French law, not Turkish law. Their case is heard in the French embassy or consulate. Small crimes are usually handled by consuls, while more serious crimes are dealt with by a minister or ambassador of the same nationality. Turkish police and judges do not take part in these trials at all.

Turkish Law Based on Religion and Tradition

Turkish law is very different from Western legal systems. It is based mainly on religion, especially the teachings of Islam. The main source of law is the Koran, the holy book of Muslims. It also includes the teachings of important early Muslim leaders, called Khalifs, and other scholars of Islam.

Another major source of Turkish law is the Sheik-ul-Islam, the head of the Islamic religious system. People can ask this religious leader legal questions, and his answers become part of the law. His decisions are final and can overrule any judge in the country.

Legal Books and Royal Orders

These religious laws and decisions are written and organized into a book. This legal book is divided into sections such as:

Business and trade laws, Criminal laws, Religious and everyday rules

The Turkish legal system also includes firmans, which are orders given by the Sultan. These orders may allow or forbid specific actions and are meant to guide the people. In addition to this, there are police rules and regulations, which are usually the same every year unless changed Guided Tour Ephesus.

The Role of Islamic Legal Experts

There is a group of Islamic legal experts called the kazaskers. They are similar to judges and lawyers. These experts help the Sheik-ul-Islam by researching and preparing legal opinions or summaries for him to review and sign.

There is also another small court called the Ulema, which handles minor legal issues. All of these parts together form the full picture of how traditional Turkish and Islamic law work in the Ottoman Empire.

The Church of SS Manual Sabel and Ishmael

The church dedicated to the three martyr brothers, SS. Manual, Sabel, and Ishmael, was likely located on the Fifth Hill. This is because it stood near the point where the wall began to descend towards the Golden Horn. This matches the description in the Synaxaria, which states that the church was beside the land wall of Constantine, situated on steep ground, and close to the Church of St. Elias at the Petrion. The location of the church aligns with these details, confirming that it must have been on the Fifth Hill.

The District of Harmatius

The district of Harmatius is named after a notable figure during the reign of Emperor Zeno. The district can be found in the plain bordered by the Fifth, Fourth, and Third Hills, as well as the Golden Horn. This plain, known in later years as the Plateia (or IlXareia), was the area where the fortifications of Constantine’s wall would have descended from the Fifth Hill. The walls then proceeded on their northeastern course toward the Golden Horn Private Sofia Tour.

The Notitia, a historical document, indicates that the northern end of the city’s walls extended to this point. It is likely that in Constantine’s time, the bay at this location extended further into the plain than it does today.

Church of St. Antony

A church dedicated to St. Antony was located in this part of the city. The Archbishop of Novgorod visited Constantinople at the end of the eleventh century and documented his visit to the church of St. Antony. Before visiting St. Antony’s church, he paid his respects at several other notable churches in the city, including the Church of St. Theodosia, the Church of St. Isaiah, and the Church of St. Laurentius. These churches were all located in the same plain.

The Church of St. Theodosia is believed to have been located at what is now the Mosque Gul Djami, near Aya Kapou. The Church of St. Isaiah is thought to correspond to the Mosque of Sheik Mourad, and the Church of St. Laurentius is believed to be represented by the Mosque of Pour Kouyou, further to the south.

The Location of St. Antony’s Church

The Archbishop mentions that the Church of St. Antony was on higher ground than the Church of St. Laurentius. It was situated slightly up the slope of the Fourth Hill. This suggests that the church of St. Antony of Harmatius was located at a slightly elevated spot, which is consistent with the historical description of the church’s location. Therefore, it is highly probable that this church occupied the higher ground just above the Fourth Hill.

In summary, the churches and landmarks mentioned in the text correspond to specific locations within Constantinople, primarily around the Fifth, Fourth, and Third Hills, and the Golden Horn. The Church of SS. Manual, Sabel, and Ishmael was located on the Fifth Hill, near the Constantinian wall. The district of Harmatius is situated in the plain bordered by the Golden Horn, while the Church of St. Antony is thought to have been located on the higher ground near the Fourth Hill.

The Location of the Cistern of Bonus

Dr. Strzygowski proposed that the Cistern of Bonus might have been located near Eski Ali Pasha Djamissi, on the northern bank of the Lycus Valley, to the southwest of the Mosque of Sultan Mehmed. However, there have been no traces of a cistern found in this area. Despite this, Strzygowski’s suggestion is reasonable when considering its proximity to the line of Constantine’s Wall and the Church of the Holy Apostles.

Yet, the choice of this location for a summer palace remains unclear. The area might have been cool and suitable for such a purpose, but without further evidence, it’s hard to explain why this spot was specifically chosen for the palace.

The Constantinian Wall and Its Route

The Constantinian Wall, after passing the Cistern of Aspar, turns sharply to the north-east. The wall continues towards the shore of the Golden Horn by crossing the ridge of the Fifth Hill at an oblique angle. This direction is important for two reasons Private Sofia Tour.

Why the Wall Took This Route

First, this route helps keep the width of the city within the dimensions specified in the Notitia, an important source of information about the city’s layout. According to the Notitia, the city’s Eleventh Region did not extend all the way to the Golden Horn. The document clearly states: “Nulla parte mari sociata est,” which translates to “No part [of the region] is connected to the sea.”

This statement implies that the northern fortifications of the city, in the Eleventh Region, were not near the water but set back from it. This further explains why the fortifications along the northern front of the city must have been positioned at a distance from the Golden Horn.

The Geography of the Fifth Hill

The Fifth Hill slopes steeply toward the Golden Horn, so there wasn’t much available land for building on this side of the city. The only usable space for the fortifications in this area would have been the plateau of the Fifth Hill. This location is where the large cistern beside the Mosque of Sultan Selim can be found.

While Dr. Strzygowski’s suggestion about the Cistern of Bonus location is reasonable based on the proximity to significant landmarks, there is still no physical evidence to confirm it. Additionally, the path taken by the Constantinian Wall was essential for maintaining the boundaries of the city as described in the Notitia. The geography of the Fifth Hill limited where fortifications could be built, which led to the positioning of key structures along its plateau.

The Cistern of Bonus and Its Importance

The Cistern of Bonus was located in a particularly cool area of Constantinople, making it an ideal spot during the hot summer months. Due to this location, Emperor Romanus I decided to build a palace near the cistern. This palace, known as the New Palace of Bonus, served as his residence during the warmer season.

Cool Location and Attractive Views

In Constantinople, there was no cooler place to be in the summer than the terrace where the Mosque of Sultan Selim now stands. The area offered a great view of the Golden Horn, which made it even more attractive. This combination of coolness and breathtaking views made it the perfect spot for the emperor to escape the heat of the summer months Private Sofia Tour.

Proximity to the Church of the Holy Apostles

Another important factor to consider is the Cistern of Bonus’s proximity to the Church of the Holy Apostles. On the eve of an important annual service held in the church to honor Constantine the Great, the Imperial Court would often stay at the Palace of Bonus. This was done to be within easy riding distance of the church for the festival the next morning. The close location of the Palace of Bonus to the Church of the Holy Apostles made it a convenient place for the emperor and his court to stay during the event.

The Route from the Palace to the Church

On the way from the Palace of Bonus to the Church of the Holy Apostles, there was an old cistern that had been converted into market gardens. This cistern might have been the one near the Mosque of Sultan Selim, which further supports the idea that the Cistern of Bonus was located near the mosque.

The Wall of Constantine and Its Relation to the Cistern

The Wall of Constantine, which surrounded Constantinople, passed close to the Cistern of Bonus. Specifically, the wall moved from the Cistern of Aspar to the Golden Horn, passing near the Mosque of Sultan Selim. This supports the idea that the cistern near the mosque could have been the Cistern of Bonus.

A Key Difference in Identification

However, there is a significant issue with identifying the Cistern of Bonus with the reservoir near the Mosque of Sultan Selim. The Cistern of Bonus was roofed, while the reservoir beside the mosque appears to have always been open. This key difference suggests that while the two locations are close, they may not be the same.

The Cistern of Bonus played an important role in the life of Constantinople. It was strategically located in a cool and pleasant area, close to the Palace of Bonus and the Church of the Holy Apostles. While there is evidence to support its location near the Mosque of Sultan Selim, the difference in the structure of the cisterns makes it uncertain whether they are the same. Further research may be needed to fully confirm the exact location of this significant Byzantine landmark.

The Cistern of Bonus and Its Location

The conclusion regarding the course of the Constantinian Wall aligns with the information given by Zosimus and the Notitia. As mentioned earlier, these sources suggest that the wall passed close to this point. Now, let’s look at another important landmark: the Cistern of Bonus.

The Importance of the Cistern of Bonus

The Cistern of Bonus was built by the Patrician Bonus, a well-known figure in Byzantine history. He is most famous for his brave defense of Constantinople in 627. During that time, the Emperor Heraclius was away in Persia fighting the Persians and the Avars. Bonus’s efforts in protecting the city while the emperor was abroad earned him significant recognition.

Dispute Over the Cistern’s Location

There is a disagreement about where exactly the Cistern of Bonus was located. It is not easy to determine its exact position with the information we have today. Gyllius, a 16th-century traveler, believed that the cistern was a large one located on the Sixth Hill, near the Church of St. John in Petra. He described it as being 300 paces in length and robbed of its roof and columns, turned into a vegetable garden Private Sofia Tour.

However, Gyllius’s identification may not be entirely accurate. The Constantinian Wall never extended that far west, so his identification of the cistern in that location is questionable.

Dr. Mordtmann’s Theory

Dr. Mordtmann, a modern scholar, has a different theory regarding the location of the Cistern of Bonus. He suggests that it was the large open reservoir found to the south-west of the Mosque of Sultan Selim, on the Fifth Hill. This idea has strong support, and there are several reasons to believe that the Cistern of Bonus was located in this area.

In conclusion, the Cistern of Bonus plays an important role in the history of Constantinople and its defenses. Although there is still some uncertainty about its exact location, the two main theories—Gyllius’s theory and Dr. Mordtmann’s theory—offer valuable insights into the city’s infrastructure during the time of Constantine. Further studies and discoveries may eventually provide a clearer answer regarding its precise location.

The Trojan Porticoes

One important landmark along the course of the Constantinian Wall were the Trojan Porticoes. These were located so close to the wall that the wall was sometimes called the Trojan Wall after them. The Trojan Porticoes were in the Twelfth Region of the city, and they likely lined the street leading from the Porta Aurea into the city. These porticoes were significant in architecture, and there are records that they were damaged by fire or earthquake. The exact reason for their name is unclear, and unfortunately, no remains of them exist today.

Monastery of St. Dius and the Convent of Icasia

The course of the Constantinian Wall is not well known in some areas. For instance, it is stated that the wall passed beside the Monastery of St. Dius and the Convent of Icasia, but the exact locations of these places are hard to identify. These establishments are believed to have been located near each other on the Seventh Hill.

The Monastery of St. Dius is said to have been from the time of Theodosius I and was mentioned by Antony of Novgorod in connection with the Church of St. Mokius and the Church of St. Luke. The Convent of Icasia was founded by a lady named Icasia, who was known for her beauty and intelligence. Emperor Theophilus had once considered marrying her, but he rejected her after she disagreed with his belief that women were the source of evil Private Sofia Tour.

The Cistern of Aspar

The Cistern of Aspar is another important landmark near the old city wall. According to the Paschal Chronicle, this cistern was located near the ancient wall. The Tchoukour Bostan, also known as the Byzantine reservoir, is located in the same area. It is situated along the road that leads from the Mosque of Sultan Mehemet to the Adrianople Gate in the Theodosian Walls.

The Tchoukour Bostan is a large Byzantine reservoir, and it is close to the Monastery of Manuel, which was founded by the general Manuel during the reign of Theophilus. The church of this monastery is now the Kefele Mesdjidi Mosque in the Salmak Tombruk quarter. The Tchoukour Bostan is the largest Byzantine reservoir in the area and is a significant historical feature.

In conclusion, the Constantinian Wall passed several important landmarks, including the Trojan Porticoes, the Monastery of St. Dius, and the Cistern of Aspar. While some details about their exact locations are unclear, these landmarks provide important clues to the history of Constantinople and the development of the city’s defenses during the reign of Constantine.

The Ancient Gate and Its Significance

On the summit of the hill stood a marble portico, shining bright white. In front of the entrance, there was a column that once had a statue on top. When Bondelmontius visited the city in 1422, the gate was still standing. It was shown on his map of Constantinople as the “Antiquissima Pulchra Porta” (The Most Ancient Beautiful Gate). The gate remained intact even after the Turkish Conquest and was known as Isa Kapoussi, meaning “The Gate of Jesus”. It stood proudly until 1508, when a great earthquake caused it to collapse.

The Fall of Isa Kapoussi

According to the Turkish historian Solak Zade, Isa Kapoussi, near Avret Bazaar, had been standing for about 1900 years before it fell to the ground in 1508. The historian writes, “Isa Kapoussi… fell and was levelled to the ground after existing for 1900 years.” Despite the destruction, the name of the gate still lingers in the area. A small mosque near Avret Bazaar is called Isa Kapoussi Mesdjidi (The Mosque of Isa Kapoussi), and the street next to it is named Isa Kapoussi Sokaki (Isa Kapoussi Street) Sofia Guided Tours.

The Mosque and Its Connection to the Gate

The mosque, now standing on the site, was originally a Christian church. The name of the mosque and street suggests the church may have had a name that influenced its Turkish title. This is significant because the original Isa Kapoussi gate was near the spot where this mosque stands today.

The Wall of Constantine

It is clear from these facts that the Wall of Constantine, when it crossed the Seventh Hill, passed very close to the Isa Kapoussi Mesdjidi mosque. This matches the previous conclusion about the location of the Exokionion district. The column outside the Ancient Gate was likely the same one that gave its name to the district. A column bearing a statue of the city’s founder, Constantine, would have been perfectly placed in front of this grand entrance.

In summary, the Ancient Gate of Constantine, also known as Isa Kapoussi, played an important role in the history of Constantinople. The gate stood for almost 1900 years before being destroyed by an earthquake in 1508. Today, the name Isa Kapoussi still lives on through the mosque and street nearby, marking the former location of this impressive structure.

The Exokionion and the Seventh Hill

The district on the Seventh Hill, located to the west of Avret Bazaar (the Forum of Arcadius) and next to the Cistern of Mokius, still carries the name Exokionion today, though in a Turkish form. The district is known as Alti Mermer, meaning “The Six Columns”. This is a Turkish adaptation of the Byzantine name Hexakionion, which was a common name for the Exokionion. Therefore, it’s clear that the Exokionion was situated on the Seventh Hill. The Wall of Constantine passed through this hill, just east of the Alti Mermer area.

The Ancient Gate of the Forerunner

The next important landmark in identifying the location of Constantine’s wall is the Ancient Gate of the Forerunner (also called the Ancient Gate). This gate provided a key reference for the position of the wall. It was part of the original fortifications of the city and outlasted many other structures, similar to how Temple Bar survived after the wall of London was gone. The gate became known as the Ancient Gate because of its great age Sofia Guided Tours.

The name Ancient Gate of the Forerunner comes from the fact that a church dedicated to John the Baptist (the Forerunner) was built next to the gate. The church was called the Church of the Forerunner at the Ancient Gate.

Description of the Ancient Gate

The Ancient Gate was described by Manuel Chrysolaras as one of the most impressive monuments in the city. It was located to the west of the Forum of Arcadius. The gate was so wide and tall that a tower or even a full-rigged ship could pass through its entrance. This highlights the grandeur of the gate and its importance in the city’s history.

In summary, the Exokionion was located on the Seventh Hill, and the Wall of Constantine passed through this area. The Ancient Gate of the Forerunner provided an important landmark that helped determine the position of the wall. This gate, along with the church dedicated to John the Baptist, played a significant role in the history of Constantinople.

The Soulou Monastery and Its History

The Soulou Monastery, originally founded by Romanus Argyrus, was one of the most important monastic establishments in Constantinople. The monastery’s church survived the Turkish conquest and remained under Greek control until 1643, when Sultan Ibrahim handed it over to the Armenian community. Since then, the church has been destroyed by fire twice. Today, it has been rebuilt and is known as St. George Church. The church is often called Soulou Monastir (the Water Monastery) because it is located next to an ancient cistern. It stands in the Psamathia district, at the southern slope of the Seventh Hill.

The Xerolophos and the Forum of Arcadius

The Xerolophos was the name of the Seventh Hill in general, but it was sometimes used to refer specifically to the Forum of Arcadius (which is located in Avret Bazaar). The forum was located at the summit of the Seventh Hill.

Location of the Exokionion

Based on this information, the Exokionion must have been situated between the Sigma and the Forum of Arcadius, occupying the upper western slope of the Seventh Hill Sofia Guided Tours.

Additional Evidence for the Location of the Exokionion

There are a few more pieces of evidence that support this conclusion. First, the Church of St. Mokius, which was used by the Arians for their religious services in the Exokionion, stood on the Seventh Hill. The church was located on the road that connected the Sigma to the Forum of Arcadius. Additionally, the church was close to a large ancient cistern known as the Tchoukour Bostan, which was located to the north-west of the Forum.

In summary, the Exokionion was a district on the Seventh Hill, between the Sigma and the Forum of Arcadius. It was a significant area in the early history of Constantinople, particularly in connection with the Arians and their religious services. The church of St. Mokius and the nearby cistern provide further evidence for the district’s location.

The Exokionion District and Its Significance

The Exokionion (Greek: Ἐξοκίωνιον) was a district located just outside the Constantinian Wall. It got its name from a column in the area that had a statue of the founder of the city. Due to a change in the name over time, this area was also called the Ilxeakionion (Greek: Ἐξοκίωνιον).

The Exokionion in Ecclesiastical History

In ecclesiastical history, the Exokionion is especially important because it became known as the place where Arians were allowed to hold religious services. This happened when Theodosius the Great, who supported orthodox Christianity, banned heretical worship within the city. As a result, the Arians and the people of the Exokionion were often considered synonymous. Over time, this district became a popular area, with many fine churches and luxurious homes Sofia Guided Tours.

Different Views on the Location of the Exokionion

Many people have had different opinions on where exactly the Exokionion was located. The historian Gyllius thought it was on the Fifth Hill. He based his view on the fact that when he visited the city, he found a noble column on that hill, about half a mile northwest of the Mosque of Sultan Mehmed.

However, Dr. Mordtmann argued that the name Exokionion referred to the area along the entire line of the Constantinian land fortifications, not just one specific location.

Correct Location of the Exokionion

The evidence, however, points to the Seventh Hill as the actual location of the Exokionion. In the historical account of the triumphal entry of Basil I. through the Golden Gate of the Theodosian Walls, the Exokionion is mentioned as being situated between two areas: the Sigma and the Xerolophos.

The Sigma is significant in the history of the sedition that led to the overthrow of Michael V. in 1042. The Sigma is described as being above the Monastery of St. Mary Peribleptos. This location of the monastery is well-known, helping to place the Exokionion on the Seventh Hill.

In conclusion, the Exokionion was a historically important area outside the city walls, known for its association with the Arian religious practices and as a later fashionable part of the city. Despite various theories, the evidence seems to point to the Seventh Hill as the true location of this district.